3. Rosenhan and Seligman (rose-en-han & sell-ig-man) Rosenhan and Seligman suggested that the concept of dysfunction included: personal distress maladaptive behaviour unpredictability irrationality observer discomfort violation of moral or ideal standards

4. Abnormality research questions. Write out answers. 1.Who conducted the research which suggests the concept of dysfunction? Rosenhan and Seligman 2.What six characteristics did they researchers say suggested dysfunction? Personal distress Maladaptive behaviour Unpredictability Irrationality Observer discomfort Violation of moral or ideal standards

5. Deviation from Social Norms there are implicit and explicit rules implicit: not a law but considered unacceptable explicit: e.g. Crime Limitations abnormal or eccentric? abnormal or criminal?

6. Deviation from Ideal Mental Health identifies normal behaviour once identified, it can highlight abnormalities 1- positive view of self 2- actualisation 3- autonomy 4- accurate view of reality 5- environment adaptability 6- resistance to stress Limitations difficult to achieve; nobody would be 100% cultural differences subjective; we experience different realties no real ideal mental health

7. Failure to Function Adequately inability to cope with everyday life Limitations subjective- influenced by personal opinion and emotions etc. cultural differences people can function adequately but still show abnormal behaviour labelling; people may live up to a label

8. Questions on definitions of abnormality. Write answers out. 1.What's an implicit rule and what's an explicit rule? An implicit rule isn't a law but something considered socially unacceptable. An explicit rule is a law. 2.Describe three of the criteria from the definition ‘Deviation from Ideal Mental Health’. Actualisation Accurate view of reality Positive view of self 3.Outline one weakness of defining abnormality in terms of mental health. One weakness is the difficulty of meeting all criteria, very few people would be able to do so and this suggests then that few people are psychologically healthy. 4.Define ‘Failure to Function Adequately’. The inability to cope with everyday life.

11. Infection bacteria and viruses which invade the body can cause mental illness. e.g. General paresis caused by syphilis which is an STI results in gradual mental decline. Schizophrenia is linked with the flu... women who have had flu during pregnancy run a greater risk of having children who develop schizophrenia later in life. the flu virus can cause damage to the developing brain of the foetus.

12. Biochemistry Neurotransmitters are chemical messages which cells in the brain use to communicate with each other Too many neurotransmitters or too few could cause psychological disorders 1.Schizophrenia – excessive levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine 2.Depression – decreased levels of serotonin

13. Brain Damage injury tumours strokes Can all cause major behavioural changes. e.g. Alzheimer's. Korsakoff’s syndrome: a memory impairment disorder caused by too much alcohol which damages the brain. Phineas Gage: an iron rod went through his head which caused him to become aggressive and temperamental, which was the opposite of how he was before.

14. Genes psychological disorders can be inherited. 1 st degree relatives share 50% of a persons genes (parents, siblings) 2 nd degree relatives (aunts, cousins) share 25% of a persons genes Example – research into schizophrenia shows that 1 st degree relatives of someone with schizophrenia had a 10% chance of developing it too. To investigate such things, psychologists do family, twin and adoption studies.

15. Investigating the Role of Genetics Family studies: 1 st degree relatives share about 50% of their genes, while 2 nd degree relatives share about 25%. to investigate the role of inheritance in a disorder, studies are carried out that compare the rates for the disorder in those who are related to already diagnosed cases. Twin studies: comparing the likelihood of both twins being affected with a disorder. there is a higher concordance (presence of the same trait) rate for schizophrenia among identical twins (48%) than among fraternal twins (17%). Adoption studies: to separate out the effects of environmental and genetic factors, adopted children who later developed mental disorders are studied and compared with their biological and adoptive parents. Wender et al found there was an 8 times greater chance of developing depression from biological relatives than adoptive relatives.

16. Evaluation of The Biological Approach to Abnormality no blame – the person with the illness isn’t responsible since it’s purely biological. stigma – reduces stigma because there is usually fear attached to it but if people see it as a biological act then there isn’t as much fear. relinquishing responsibility – people may become passive and may not feel responsible for their own recovery. research – research has increased the understanding of mental illness. reductionist – its too complex to simplify a mental illness from a biological perspective. McGuffin et al found that 46% of concordance in identical twins compared to 20% of non-identical twins for depression in a total of 109 twin pairs. This suggests a genetic component in depression but much of the evidence is inconclusive.

17. Questions on the Biological Approach to Abnormality. Write out answers. 1.What can excessive levels of dopamine cause? schizophrenia. 2.What are 1 st and 2 nd degree relatives? 1 st degree relatives share 50% of a persons genes, these are our parents and siblings. 2 nd degree relatives share 25% of a persons genes, these are our aunties, uncles, cousins. 3.How can you investigate the role in inheritance in genetic disorders? Compare the rates of people already diagnosed with the disorder in the family. 4.What does concordance mean? A presence of the same trait. 5.What did Wender et al find? There was an 8 times greater chance of developing depression from biological relatives than adoptive relatives. 6.What did McGuffin et al find? A 46% concordance in identical twins compared to 20% non-identical twins for depression.

18. Sandy and Vandita play for the same netball team. Two weeks ago, while playing in a competition, they both grazed their elbows. Vandita’s wound is healing well, but Sandy’s wound is taking much longer to heal. Sandy is very worried about the plans for her wedding and her house move. Using your knowledge of psychology, explain why Sandy’s wound is taking longer to heal than Vandita’s (3 marks). research by Kielcolt-Glaser concluded that stress has an impact on the immune system by lowering it; the more stress, the lower the white blood cells. so people experiencing long-term stress are more likely to become ill and to take longer to heal than those who are not stressed. so Sandy’s wound would take longer to heal because of the stress she is experiencing with her wedding and her house move.

20. The Pituitary-Adrenal System stressor  signals from higher brain centres  hypothalamus  fight or flight.  the hypothalamus prepares for this fight or flight response by communicating with another part of the brain called the pituitary gland causing a release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).  the ACTH is detected in the bloodstream by the adrenal cortex and in response it releases further hormones into the bloodstream called corticosteroids: - one kind of corticosteroid causes the liver to release glucose, fatty acids and cholesterol for the extra energy needed during stress. - another ensures faster clotting of the blood in case of injury.  this system, also known as the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) system is chemical based and because of this, whilst still fast, the communication is slower than the sympathomedullary pathway.  the stress response can also be prolonged because hormones are released into the bloodstream and because these chemicals take a while to break down and disappear, their effects will be felt for some time after the original stressor has passed.

21. The Sympathomedullary Pathway The hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system, a part of the autonomic nervous system involved in arousing the body. the SNS stimulates a gland in the body called the adrenal medulla to release two hormones called adrenaline and noradrenaline into the bloodstream, increasing blood pressure and heart rate. this system uses electrical communication so is very fast acting.

22. The hypothalamus triggers two biological mechanisms, which are? the pituitary adrenal system. the sympathomedullary pathway. The central nervous system consists of all the _______ in the brain and _______ ______ and their activity is the basis for __________ and behaviours. The central nervous system consists of all the neurons in the brain and spinal cord and their activity is the basis for thoughts and behaviours. The peripheral nervous system consists of all the _______ that lie outside the ______ and spinal cord. including sensory and ______ neurons that bring information to and from the ________ _______ ________ about pain, touch and temperature. the peripheral nervous system consists of all the neurons that lie outside the brain and spinal cord including sensory and motor neurons that bring information to and from the CNS about pain, touch and temperature. What does the pituitary gland release? Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which is detected ion the bloodstream by the adrenal cortex.

23. The adrenal medulla is triggered by the ___________ branch of the ____________ nervous system (ANS) to produce adrenaline. The adrenal medulla is triggered by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) to produce adrenaline. How is adrenaline produced? The adrenal medulla is triggered by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. What releases corticosteroids? The adrenal cortex. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the _______ _______ to release adrenaline and ___________ into the blood stream which increases ______ _________ and heart rate. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the adrenal medulla To release adrenaline and noradrenaline into the blood stream which increases blood pressure and heart rate.

26. Structure of the Psyche There are three components of the psyche: the id which is present at birth and works on the pleasure principal the ego which develops at around age 3 and operates on the reality principle. It tries to resolves conflicting demands of the id and superego, if either one is dominant or there is lots of conflict then this could lead to abnormality the superego which develops at around age 5 which is a persons conscience and guides behaviour with the principles of guilt and pride in mind

27. Psychosexual Development Freud believed that it is the unconscious which drives our behaviour and that traumatic childhood memories and experiences may become part of the unconscious. memories of these early events are repressed but can manifest themselves in later abnormal behaviour. Psychosexual stages – at each stage we find pleasure and gratification from a different part of our body if we experience too much or too little gratification then we can have a fixation upon these things these fixations are expressed in our behaviours as adults

28. Oral stage (0-1 year) pleasure is at the mouth e.g. Feeding fixation may occur from demands not being met or if they are weaned too early in adult years the fixation may manifest in over eating, smoking and drinking Anal stage (1-3 years) anus is the pleasure centre e.g. Going to the toilet demands of being potty trained can cause conflicts strict potty training could lead to obsessions with cleanliness as an adult or difficulty in expressing emotions

29. Phallic stage (3-5 years) the genital area becomes more sensitive and the child begins to have unconscious sexual desires for the opposite sex parent this leads to conflict within the child because it fears punishments by the same sex parent in boys this is called the Oedipus complex – he fears castration so tries to be like his father in girls its called the Electra complex Latency stage (5-12 years) a period of rest, sexuality lies dormant which the child learns gender roles, social rules and developing self confidence Genital stage (12 years and onwards) genitals becomes the pleasure area and individuals become more interested in the opposite sex, there is also a drive towards independence and a potential time of stress

32. Legitimate Authority (Obedience) people are more likely to obey an authority figure if they are considered credible and respected by society we would even obey orders if they were immoral Bickman New York asked to do something by a man dressed as either a guard, civilian or milkman people were more likely to obey the guard it was in a natural setting so has high ecological validity only done in New York so lacks population validity

33. Milgrams Agentic Shift Theory People act in an autonomous state or agentic state 1 – autonomous means taking responsibility 2 – agentic means the person feels they aren’t responsible so if another orders them to do something, they aren’t responsible The shift is caused by... conditioning at a younger age binding factors: fear of rudeness, fear of increasing anxiety THE AGENTIC SHIFT  MOVING FROM THE AUTONOMOUS STATE TO THE AGENTIC SHIFT

34. Personality Factors People are more likely to obey if their personality is... 1.Authoritarian personality Rigid beliefs Intolerant to change Hostile to minorities Submissive to authorities 2.Psychopathic personality E.g. In Milgrams study, it would make inflicting pain socially acceptable; it would be a socially acceptable form of expressing violent and disturbed impulses

35. Obedience questions. Write out answers. 1.What would make people more likely to obey someone? People are more likely to obey someone who is seen as an authority figure by society. If we feel we aren’t responsible. If our personality type is either authoritarian or psychopathic. 2.Describe an evaluation point for each of the obedience theories. Legitimate Authority: Bickmans research was in a natural setting (New York) so has high ecological validity. Milgrams Agentic Shift: allows us to live successfully in hierarchal societies; e.g. Obeying police. Personality Factors: reductionist; too simplistic to have only two personality types. 3.Define autonomous and agentic. Autonomous means taking responsibility. Agentic means the person feels they aren’t responsible. 4.Name two characteristics of the Authoritarian Personality type. Intolerant to change. Rigid beliefs.

38. How Does Minority Influence Occur? Consistency the minority must be consistent in their position this gives the majority a signal that the minority is committed to its position if the minority were inconsistent, the majority would pick up on it and exploit it by being consistent, a minority is harder for the majority to ignore Confidence confidence sends the signal to the majority that the minority view is serious the majority view will therefore demand attention Persuasiveness a minority should try to win over people from the majority, so should be sufficiently persuasive

39. For many years smoking in public places was acceptable. People could smoke wherever they wanted and non-smokers has to put up with it. In 2007 there was a smoking ban so smokers couldn't smoke in public places. Using your knowledge of the psychology of social change, explain how this social change has occurred. Example question: a small minority could slowly persuade the majority to change their views on smoking the minority would need to be consistent and flexible the snowball effect explains how this change gathers momentum and gradually the minority becomes the majority and people now conform to the majority view eventually the Government passes a popular law and thus obedience can explain the change