1. SAY WHAT YOU MEAN AND MEAN WHAT YOU SAY Diction

2. is at the heart of any discussion about style and tone = word choice, figurative language, sound / flow of sentences goes above and beyond grammar, creates the tone of a text

3. Diction  Tone  The speaker’s attitude toward the subject matter or audience, as revealed by the choice of language and the rhythms of speech  E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold, energetic, academic, humorous, etc.

4. Diction  Levels of Diction (Language):  Formal  characterized by a learned vocabulary and grammatically correct forms. Does not usually include colloquialisms  Neutral  uses standard language and vocabulary without many elaborate words and may contain contractions. (think news report)  Informal  language closest to everyday conversation; may include colloquialisms and slang

5. Diction  Types of Diction: Slang refers to a group of recently coined words often used in informal situations. Colloquial expressions are nonstandard, often regional, ways of using language appropriate to informal or conversational speech and writing. Jargon consists of words and expressions characteristic of a particular profession, or pursuit. Dialect is a nonstandard subgroup of a language with its own vocabulary and grammatical features. Concrete diction consists of specific words that describe physical qualities or conditions. Abstract diction refers to language that denotes ideas, emotions, conditions or concepts that are intangible.

6.  Student Example (Informal): September 15, 2010 will never be forgotten in my brain. I cannot wait for another chance to meet the totally awesome Jessica Simpson. She is looked up to by many, young and old. Meeting her really made me feel as if I am a true New Yorker. I would have never been able to do that if I didn’t live in New York City. It was unforgettable! I told her that I was the biggest fan and crazy in love with her. She is drop dead gorgeous, and I want to be just like that girl!  Student Example (Standard/Popular): September 15, 2010 was an unforgettable day, one that has made a significant impact on my life. It was the day that I had the opportunity to meet Jessica Simpson, a woman I greatly admire for her inspirational achievements. Meeting Ms. Simpson made me feel like a true New Yorker because if I didn’t live in New York City, it would not have been possible.  Student Example (Formal): Ms. Jessica Simpson is a talented singer and actress, and she has used her aptitudes and eminence to aid her in her humanitarian efforts. Her philanthropic work often pertains to social issues such as homelessness and domestic violence. I had the great honor and privilege of meeting Ms. Simpson in New York City. It was clear from her friendly demeanor that she has not been corrupted by her status as a celebrity. Instead, she is an inspirational force in the lives of many young women. She projects an inner beauty in addition to her stunning and strong physical features. Varying Tone through Diction

7. Diction Denotation is the exact, literal definition of a word independent of any emotional association or secondary meaning. Connotation is the implicit rather than explicit meaning of a word and consists of the suggestions, associations, and emotional overtones attached to a word. Good writers value both denotation and connotation, but while scientists may use more denotative words, literary artists tend to rely more heavily on connotative words for deepest meaning and strongest effect. Since connotative words have complex layers of associations and implications, writers spend a considerable amount of time searching for just the “right words” to convey experience and truth.

8. Considerations for Analyzing Diction Does the author choose concrete or abstract expression? Are the words monosyllabic or polysyllabic? Do the words have clearly negative, positive, or other connotations? Is the diction formal or colloquial? Is there a marked change in the level of diction at any point in the passage? What can the reader infer about the speaker or the speaker’s attitude from the word choice? Is the language intended to sound pleasing, or harsh?

9. What conclusions can we draw from these considerations?  If the diction is...  Concrete  Abstract  Monosyllabic words  Polysyllabic words  Formal  Colloquial  Change in diction?  Euphonious  Cacophonous  Might the speaker seem...? o Direct, observant, childlike o Evasive, vague, mature, philosophical o Intellectually inferior, terse, stoic o Sophisticated, or pompous o Educated, polite, cautious o Rash, uneducated, provincial o Undecided, emotional, near epiphany o Elated, calm o Agitated, angry

10. Diction as a Means of Establishing Tone Remember that tone refers to the author’s rather than the speaker’s attitude—however, assessing the speaker’s attitude is a first step in drawing conclusions about the author’s. What seems to be the speaker’s attitude in the passage? Is more than one attitude or point of view expressed? Does the passage have a noticeable emotional mood or atmosphere? Can anything in the passage be described as irony? If so, this may indicate that the author’s tone differs from the speaker’s.

11. How to Assess Diction and Tone Always use an adjective when describing both diction and tone. Remember that the adjective you apply to the tone needs to be a word that can describe an attitude.  When in doubt, use a formula such as this one: “___ diction contributes to the ___ tone.”  Or, in somewhat greater detail: “In [name of work], [author] writes in a [connotation] [level of formality] style. Her use of [connotation descriptor] and [level of formality descriptor] language [achieves this specific purpose].” “In Heart of Darkness, Joseph Conrad writes in a highly connotative high style. His use of abstract, poetic, and ornate language establishes existential themes of fate and meaninglessness.”

12. Consider the following example: Bouncing into view, she illuminated the entire room with the joyous glow on her face as she gushed about her fiancé and their wedding plans. What specific words create feeling in the sentence? What words did the author use to create that mood or feeling?

13. Deconstructing Diction Bouncing into view, she illuminated the entire room with the joyous glow on her face as she gushed about her fiancé and their upcoming nuptials. [ bouncing – illuminated – joyous – glow – gushed ] What kind of words are these? How might you describe them? Cheerful diction contributes to the euphoric tone. Exuberant diction contributes to the joyful tone.

14. Changing the Tone Can the same passage be rewritten with different diction and tone? Bouncing into view, she illuminated the entire room with the joyous glow on her face as she gushed about her fiancé and their upcoming nuptials. How would you change the terms in bold to rewrite this passage with lackluster diction to indicate indifferent tone? Try it now…

15. Example #2 She huddled in the corner, clutching her tattered blanket and shaking convulsively, as she feverishly searched the room for the unknown dangers that awaited her. ______ diction contributes to the ______ tone. (Perhaps frightening and alarming? However, there are many other possibilities. Can you rewrite this passage with different diction and tone?)

16. A Final Tip Please do not ever say, “The author uses [a lot of] diction.” This is tantamount to saying, “The author writes [a lot of] words.” A discussion of diction is meaningless unless you precede the term diction with an adjective that aptly describes the specific nature of the words. Finally, in commentary, what makes your discussion of diction truly worthwhile is establishing a clear link between it and what you’ve identified as the purpose or main idea of the passage under consideration.

17. Two-Part Verbs Simple verb in combination with another word or words  E.g. cool off, sit down, find out Often form idiomatic expressions that are informal or colloquial in tone Avoid or use sparingly in academic writing

18. Figurative Language Provides a writer with the opportunity to write imaginatively, while also testing the imagination of the reader Helps readers visualize what is being written about Enhances style by making texts more interesting Sharpens meaning

19. Imagery Creates pictures in the reader’s mind, and also suggests a number of imaginative associations “It was a rimy morning, and very damp. I had seen the damp lying on the outside of my little window… Now, I saw the damp lying on the bare hedges and spare grass,…. On every rail and gate, wet lay clammy; and the marsh-mist was so thick, that the wooden finger on the post directing people to our village—a direction which they never accepted, for they never came there—was invisible to me until I was quite close under it.” from Great Expectations by Dickens

20. Figure of Speech (Idiom) An example of figurative language that states something that is not literally true in order to create an effect. Some common figures of speech are:  working like a dog  sleep like a baby  You are what you eat  I’m all ears  time flies  butterflies in my stomach  frog in your throat  stab in the back

21. Simile A comparison using “like” or “as.” The similarity between two objects is made explicit; there is no pretence of absolute identity. Example:  The river is like a snake winding across the plain.

22. Metaphor An assertion that two things in some way similar are identical Example:  The river is a snake winding across the plain.  The river snakes its way across the plain.  The river winds snakily across the plain.

23. Irony Recognition of the difference between real and apparent meaning There are many different types of irony, but the most common in academic writing is:

24. Verbal Irony The contrast is between the literal meaning of what is said and what is meant; the meaning of the words used is the opposite of their sense. Satire (and its cousin sarcasm) is a form of verbal irony.

25. Figurative Language Gone Wrong Inappropriate Metaphors  Create images that don’t make sense or are inappropriate for your audience Overextended Metaphors  Are too long, and the metaphor takes control; in other words, the point you want to make is lost

26. Figurative Language Gone Wrong Dead Metaphors & Clichés  Have little force and tend to be ineffective Mixed Metaphors  Abruptly switch from one comparison to another without intending to

27. Concrete and Abstract Diction Concrete words  Denote tangible things capable of being apprehended by the physical senses Abstract words  Denote intangible things like ideas or qualities

28. Concrete and Abstract Diction You need a combination of both, but be sure to ground your writing in the concrete (use specific examples to illustrate your points) Readers remember the concrete – it illustrates and lends meaning to the abstract The more specific (i.e. concrete) your writing is, the clearer and more effective it will be

29. Weak Generalizations AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!! Use examples and always be specific Employ:  Figurative language  Imagery  Research sources as necessitated by the assignment

30. Denotation and Connotation Denotation  What a word means (dictionary definition)  What a word signifies without emotional associations, judgements, or opinions Connotation  What a word suggests  Usually determined through context

31. Denotation and Connotation When choosing words, pay attention to connotative meanings that you may not intend Example:  Brash denotes confidence, but has negative connotations  Self-assured also denotes confidence, but it carries more positive connotations

32. Euphemism An inoffensive or positive word or phrase used to avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful reality A tactful word or phrase which avoids directly mentioning a painful reality  (from William Lutz, “The World of Doublespeak” Only the first definition constitutes “doublespeak”  doublespeak is misleading or deceiving

33. Jargon The specialized language of a trade, profession, or similar group Is doublespeak if it is used to make the simple seem complex, “used not to express but to impress” (Lutz)

34. Bureaucratese A method of piling on words to overwhelm the audience It sounds good but really makes no sense

35. Inflated Language Remember “Fine Writing”? Political correctness can fall into this category Often also constitutes a kind of euphamism

36. Wrong Word Incorrect word choice is a common student error If you aren’t sure what word to use, consult your dictionary

37. Wordiness & Redundancy Clear the deadwood Strive for clarity and precision As you proofread and revise a text, delete unnecessary words but keep or add exact ones. If your horse is dead, get off. Wordy first draft:  In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax. First revision:  In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.

38. Wordiness & Redundancy Second revision:  In early February a (really mean) vicious blizzard with (very high) 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was (moving threateningly toward) threatening Halifax. Finished copy:  In early February a vicious blizzard with 150- kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.

39. Wordiness & Redundancy Compare:  In the early part of the month of February there was a really mean blizzard with very high winds that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.  In early February a vicious blizzard with 150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening Halifax.

40. Wordiness & Redundancy Make every word count Omit words or phrases that add nothing to your meaning Guidelines for omitting wordiness: Avoid tautology (the use of different words to say the same thing)  Wordy:  Commuters going back and forth to work or school formed carpools.  Concise:  Commuters formed carpools.

41. Wordiness & Redundancy The useless words in brackets below serve only to echo meaning Avoid such wordiness in your own writing:  yellow [in colour]  circular [in shape]  at 9:45 pm [that night]  return [back]  [basic] essentials  bitter[-tasting] drink  but [though]

42. Wordiness & Redundancy Do not use many words when a few will express the idea well Wordy:  In the event that the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints on the part of employees. Concise:  If the evaluation system is changed, expect complaints from employees.  (2 words take the place of 8)

43. Wordiness & Redundancy Wordy:  As far as sexism is concerned, it seems to me that a woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man. Concise:  A woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man.  (11 useless words deleted)

44. Wordiness & Redundancy Beware ready-made phrases:  at this point in time → now  bring to a conclusion → conclude  during the same time that → while  in a great many instances → often  on account of the fact that → because  situated in the vicinity of → near  was of the opinion that → believed  by means of → by  due to the fact that → because

45. Passive Voice Passive voice is wordy. Active voice is direct. Example:  Be assured that action will be taken.  I assure you that I will act. Passive voice often leaves the actor of the verb out of the construction (as in the example above).

46. Awkward Repetition Avoid careless or needless repetition of a word or phrase Faulty:  This interesting instructor knows how to make an uninteresting subject interesting. Revised:  This instructor knows how to make a dull subject interesting.

47. Awkward Repetition Awkward:  We had problems solving these problems. Revised:  We had a hard time solving these problems. Awkward:  His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more reliable than his boss. Revised:  Their bosses are different. Hers is more reliable than his.

48. Awkward Repetition Avoid carelessly repeating a root or word base. Awkward:  I got the impression that his expression of sympathy was insincere. Revised:  I felt that his expression of sympathy was insincere.

49. Awkward Repetition Eliminate careless rhymes and other distracting repetition of sounds. Awkward:  The use of catalytic converters is just one contribution to the solution of the problem of air pollution. Revised:  The use of catalytic converters is just one way to help reduce air pollution.

50. Politics and the English Language (by George Orwell) Written in 1946, yet his complaints about Modern English still relevant The errors and shortcuts that he points out are those we have just discussed

51. Politics and the English Language Questions writers should ask themselves:  What am I trying to say?  What words will express it?  What image or idiom will make it clearer?  Is this image fresh enough to have an effect?  Could I put it more shortly?  Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?

52. Politics and the English Language Orwell wants us to ground our writing in the concrete rather than in the abstract. Be specific, not vague. Choose rather than simply accept the language that you use – come up with your own metaphors and turns of phrase rather than using ready-mades.

53. Politics and the English Language Rules writers should follow:  Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print.  Never use a long word where a short one will do.  If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.

54. Politics and the English Language (Rules cont’d)  Never use the passive voice where you can use the active.  Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a jargon word if you can think of an everyday English equivalent.  Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous (uncivilized, lacking culture of refinement).