1. INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH by Dr. Ronald M. Henson Research Consultant

3. SEVEN TESTS OF GOOD RESEARCH (according to Emery and Cooper) clearly defined purpose clearly defined purpose research procedures in sufficient details research procedures in sufficient details carefully planned research design carefully planned research design limits of design and effects on findings limits of design and effects on findings analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate conclusions confined to those justified by data conclusions confined to those justified by data integrity of research integrity of research

4. RESEARCH PROCESS overall scheme of scientific activities in order to produce knowledge overall scheme of scientific activities in order to produce knowledge

5. Research Design Generalization Theory Problem Data Analysis Data Collection Hypothesis Measurement The Principal Stages of Research Process

6. Purposes of Research EXPLORE to provide familiarity with a topic, examine new interest or when a study is relatively new to provide insights, though problem with sampling EXPLORE to provide familiarity with a topic, examine new interest or when a study is relatively new to provide insights, though problem with sampling DESCRIBE to observe and discuss situations and events accurately through surveys/census depends on quality and generalizability of description DESCRIBE to observe and discuss situations and events accurately through surveys/census depends on quality and generalizability of description EXPLAIN to report the why’s of events and situations, instead of simply describing what happened EXPLAIN to report the why’s of events and situations, instead of simply describing what happened Most studies have elements of three.

7. Research and Unit of Analysis Units that are initially described for the purpose of aggregating characteristics in order to describe larger group or explain abstract phenomenon, not just the topics of research Units that are initially described for the purpose of aggregating characteristics in order to describe larger group or explain abstract phenomenon, not just the topics of research e.g. MC students, 53% male and 47% female, with mean age of 18.6 yrs, various grade point averages individually

8. Concepts Related to Units of Analysis Ecological fallacy is the danger of making assertions about individuals as unit of analysis based on the examination of groups or other aggregates Ecological fallacy is the danger of making assertions about individuals as unit of analysis based on the examination of groups or other aggregates Reductionism is an overly strict limitation on the kinds of concept/variables considered as causes to explain a broad range of human behavior Reductionism is an overly strict limitation on the kinds of concept/variables considered as causes to explain a broad range of human behavior

9. TOPICS FOR RESEARCH Characteristics such states as age, sex, income, education, status (demographics) Characteristics such states as age, sex, income, education, status (demographics) Orientations such as attitudes, beliefs, personality traits, prejudices and predispositions Orientations such as attitudes, beliefs, personality traits, prejudices and predispositions Actions are direct or second- hand accounts of individual human activities Actions are direct or second- hand accounts of individual human activities

10. TIME DIMENSION OF RESEARCH Set of time-related options made more or less at one time or deliberately extended over a period Cross-sectional is a study that takes a cross-section at one time and analyzes it (exploratory and descriptive studies) Cross-sectional is a study that takes a cross-section at one time and analyzes it (exploratory and descriptive studies) Longitudinal permits observations over extended time (trend studies for general population, cohort studies for sub-population, panel studies for same population) Longitudinal permits observations over extended time (trend studies for general population, cohort studies for sub-population, panel studies for same population)

11. TWO TYPES OF RESEARCH proprietary – conducted for a specific audience proprietary – conducted for a specific audience scholarly – conducted to promote public access to knowledge scholarly – conducted to promote public access to knowledge

12. SCHOLARLY RESEARCH is… question-oriented – heart of research is a question question-oriented – heart of research is a question methodological – step-by-step procedures methodological – step-by-step procedures creative – inventive ingenuity leading to new knowledge creative – inventive ingenuity leading to new knowledge replicable – ability to reproduce the entire inquiry process replicable – ability to reproduce the entire inquiry process

13. self-critical – reflexive, examines itself to discover flaws of its validity self-critical – reflexive, examines itself to discover flaws of its validity public – open for examination public – open for examination cumulative – enables knowledge to evolve and grow cumulative – enables knowledge to evolve and grow cyclical – ends up back where it started cyclical – ends up back where it started

14. TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT IN SCHOLARLY RESEARCH behaviorism – knowledge is obtained through systematic observation and measurement of what people do (Karl Popper) behaviorism – knowledge is obtained through systematic observation and measurement of what people do (Karl Popper) method: operationalism which transforms abstract concepts into behaviorsmethod: operationalism which transforms abstract concepts into behaviors goal: identify and test a theory that can explain, predict and lead to the control of behaviorgoal: identify and test a theory that can explain, predict and lead to the control of behavior nature: theory-then-researchnature: theory-then-research

15. phenomenological - what people do depends on what they perceive or what goes on in their minds (Robert Merton) phenomenological - what people do depends on what they perceive or what goes on in their minds (Robert Merton) method: psychological meaningsmethod: psychological meanings goal: describe how people understand their lived experiencegoal: describe how people understand their lived experience nature: research-then-theorynature: research-then-theory

16. RESEARCH MODEL an on-going cycle of five interrelated phases of research The cyclic model of research The cyclic model of research Conceptualization Planning/Designing Methodology Analyzing / Interpreting Re-conceptualization

17. THREE (3) MAJOR PHASES OF COMM. RESEARCH 1. Design Phase – from conceptualization to methodology 2. Implementation Phase – from data- gathering to analyses, conclusions and recommendations 3. Presentation Phase – the oral defense and oral delivery of research to an audience

18. FORMULATING RESEARCH PROBLEM Step One: Step One: Concept to Construct (general idea) (concrete idea)Concept to Construct (general idea) (concrete idea)

19. Step Two: Step Two: Construct to Variable (valuing a concept)Construct to Variable (valuing a concept) Step Three: Step Three: Variable to Measure (operationalization)Variable to Measure (operationalization)

20. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM The heart of research is a question, the heart of the study called research problem. It must be specific – not too broad and ambiguous It must be specific – not too broad and ambiguous It must be testable – can be proven through some hypothesis testing It must be testable – can be proven through some hypothesis testing It must be measurable – takes the limits of research thru indicators It must be measurable – takes the limits of research thru indicators

21. Sample Research Problems (For Reactions) What are the effects of labor training on employees? What are the effects of labor training on employees? Do Filipino OFWs improve their economic lives thru DOLE intervention? Do Filipino OFWs improve their economic lives thru DOLE intervention? Are DOLE employees reporting to their work on time? Are DOLE employees reporting to their work on time? Does government campaign on OFW empower the Filipinos working abroad? Does government campaign on OFW empower the Filipinos working abroad?

22. Now Try This! Make some problem statements by matching the ideas: Flextime and productivity in government Flextime and productivity in government Social media and effectiveness of e- governance Social media and effectiveness of e- governance Vices and lifestyles in government and corruption Vices and lifestyles in government and corruption Image of government and organizational commitment among DOLE employees Image of government and organizational commitment among DOLE employees

23. THEORY any conceptual representation or explanation of the research process

24. Two Generalizations: 1. All theories are abstractions – no single theory will reveal the truth, theorist points out and explains what is believed to be important 2. All theories must be viewed as constructions – theories represent various ways in which observers see their environments, “truth” can be represented in a variety of ways

25. Four (4) Components of a Theory 1. Concepts – ideas grouped into categories according to observed commonalities, goal of a theory is to increase the usefulness of concepts Concept Types: Concept Types: Simple categories – giving of names and labels called taxonomies Simple categories – giving of names and labels called taxonomies Ordering – differentiation of events and ideas, in terms of magnitude with greater flexibility Ordering – differentiation of events and ideas, in terms of magnitude with greater flexibility Measurement – a numerical value is given to a given idea within a category leading to precision Measurement – a numerical value is given to a given idea within a category leading to precision

26. 2. Relationships – using assumptions (presumed relationships) from which predicted relationships follow but not tested; also hypothesis as a conjecture of relationship to be tested 3. Explanations/Predictions – why such relationships are bound to exist; correlation among elements of a theory (co-variation) forming patterns and relations (if-then deductive approach) 4. Value Statements/Prescriptions – statement of what is good and bad in the theory

27. Four Methods in the Inquiry Process 1. Experience – know certain things vicariously, first-hand knowledge 2. Art – personal road to truth through venting the creative talent 3. Scholarship – investigation on knowledge gained from studying the past 4. Science – significant discovery of truth through empirical observation; a blend of all methods

28. Leonard Hawes’ Concepts: Theory (an explanation) Theory (an explanation) any unsubstantiated guess about somethingany unsubstantiated guess about something Model (a representation) Model (a representation) symbolic representation of a thing, a process, or ideasymbolic representation of a thing, a process, or idea

29. Two Broad Types of Theory (according to Abraham Kaplan) 1. Specific – with a particular subject matter per se 2. Formal – can be applied to various specific content areas with a set of symbols and logical relations among the symbols; also considered as model (all models are theories, but not all theories are models)

30. Theory and Research – Two Concepts 1. Theory-then-research (Karl Popper) – established theory leads to data, and conclusion to test the theory (theory-driven research), called behaviorism 2. Research-then-theory (Robert Merton) – data and conclusion leads to formulation of a theory (theory- generated), called phenomenological

31. Growth of a Theory Growth by extension – adding new concepts to the old Growth by extension – adding new concepts to the old Growth by intension – developing an ever precise understanding of single bits of knowledge or concepts Growth by intension – developing an ever precise understanding of single bits of knowledge or concepts Growth by revolution – increase of knowledge through extension and intension Growth by revolution – increase of knowledge through extension and intension

32. Functions of a Theory Organizing and summarizing function – organization and synthesis of the phenomenal world in a meaningful way Organizing and summarizing function – organization and synthesis of the phenomenal world in a meaningful way Focus function – focusing attention to important variables and relationships Focus function – focusing attention to important variables and relationships Clarifying function – helps in understanding the correlational and causal relationships in communication Clarifying function – helps in understanding the correlational and causal relationships in communication Observational function – not only what to observe but also how to observe Observational function – not only what to observe but also how to observe Predictive function – prediction about outcomes and effects in the data Predictive function – prediction about outcomes and effects in the data

33. Differences Among Theories Theoretical scope – broad in scope or narrow Theoretical scope – broad in scope or narrow Compositional style – literary (thoery of self-presentation), academic (general semantics theory), eristic (cognitive dissonance theory), symbolic (congruence theory Compositional style – literary (thoery of self-presentation), academic (general semantics theory), eristic (cognitive dissonance theory), symbolic (congruence theory /mathematical theory), postulational (information theory on logic), formal (general systems theory) /mathematical theory), postulational (information theory on logic), formal (general systems theory)

34. Function – differences in their intended use Function – differences in their intended use Philosophical approach – physicalistic (determinism of what occurs in life has a causation) and humanistic approach (teleology which attributes phenomena to goals, reasons for existence of human beings) Philosophical approach – physicalistic (determinism of what occurs in life has a causation) and humanistic approach (teleology which attributes phenomena to goals, reasons for existence of human beings)

35. Evaluating Theories Is the theory clear and coherent? Is the theory clear and coherent? (descriptive simplicity) (descriptive simplicity) Is it the most parsimonious possible explanation? (logical simplicity) Is it the most parsimonious possible explanation? (logical simplicity) Is it well-integrated with other related theoretical knowledge? (integrative originality) Is it well-integrated with other related theoretical knowledge? (integrative originality) Is the theory fresh? (providing some new knowledge) Is the theory fresh? (providing some new knowledge) Is the theory comprehensive within its field? Is the theory comprehensive within its field? Is it widely applicable to a range of situations? Is it widely applicable to a range of situations?

36. It is testable in reality? (theory verified through observation) It is testable in reality? (theory verified through observation) When tested, is it confirmed? (theory is submitted for verification) When tested, is it confirmed? (theory is submitted for verification) Is it predictive? (utility of a theory is enhanced by its predictability) Is it predictive? (utility of a theory is enhanced by its predictability) Is it aesthetically pleasing? (beauty of the theory) Is it aesthetically pleasing? (beauty of the theory) Is it flexible and open for change and modification in light of new events and ideas? (importance of openness and hazards of premature closure) Is it flexible and open for change and modification in light of new events and ideas? (importance of openness and hazards of premature closure)

37. Theoretical Framework a theory which is the foundation of research, explains why the problem under study exists a theory which is the foundation of research, explains why the problem under study exists a set of concepts which explains and predicts the occurrence of certain phenomena a set of concepts which explains and predicts the occurrence of certain phenomena connecting events into a unified web connecting events into a unified web

38. How to Look for a Theory Review related literature Review related literature Abstract the concepts Abstract the concepts Relate the concepts/variables Relate the concepts/variables Use a theory for descriptive/experimental studies Use a theory for descriptive/experimental studies explainexplain predictpredict controlcontrol Build/construct a theory Build/construct a theory

39. Theory-building Research Cycle

40. Deduction (starts here) Formal Theory Tentative Prediction Observations and Experiences (Induction starts here) Tentative Explanation

41. Components of Theoretical Framework Descriptive concepts – showing what theory is about Descriptive concepts – showing what theory is about Operative properties – empirically measured elements called variables Operative properties – empirically measured elements called variables Set of propositions – statements of relationships between two or more empirical properties Set of propositions – statements of relationships between two or more empirical properties Deductive system – calculation of the set of propositions Deductive system – calculation of the set of propositions Contingent – experience is relevant to truth or falsity of the propositions Contingent – experience is relevant to truth or falsity of the propositions

42. Theoretical System Example: Theory of Suicide by Emille Durkheim as presented by George Homans 1. Suicide rate varies with degree of individualism 2. Degree of individualism varies with incidence of Protestantism 3. Suicide rate varies with Protestantism 4. Protestantism is low in Spain 5. Suicide rate in Spain is low

43. Axiomatic Theory (presented by Hans Zetterberg) also called formal theory also called formal theory contains a set of concepts, existence statements, relational statements divided into axioms (assumptions) and theorems (statements deduced from axioms), and a logical system contains a set of concepts, existence statements, relational statements divided into axioms (assumptions) and theorems (statements deduced from axioms), and a logical system

44. Advantages: Advantages: calls for careful description of substantive theory, for the explication of concepts and assumptionscalls for careful description of substantive theory, for the explication of concepts and assumptions clearly defined concepts using primitive/derived terms and operational definitionsclearly defined concepts using primitive/derived terms and operational definitions actual and anticipated ideasactual and anticipated ideas coordinate and support findingscoordinate and support findings verifying of results and call for future researchverifying of results and call for future research compatible with causal analysiscompatible with causal analysis

45. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH analysis of words and images rather than numbers analysis of words and images rather than numbers observation rather than survey observation rather than survey unstructured rather than unstructured rather than structured interview structured interview preference for implications or meanings rather than behavior preference for implications or meanings rather than behavior preference for induction rather than hypothesis testing preference for induction rather than hypothesis testing * From Hammerseley (1992)

46. Purpose: Purpose: * To detail the processes and draw insights, and determine factors influencing an event using wordsRole of participants: As persons/individuals/groups whose ideas and identity are importantAs persons/individuals/groups whose ideas and identity are important Role of the researcher: Role of the researcher: To observe events in the natural setting as in fieldworkTo observe events in the natural setting as in fieldwork

47. Qualitativevs.Quantitative Qualitativevs.Quantitative SoftHard FlexibleFixed SubjectiveObjective PoliticalValue-laden Case studySurvey SpeculativeHypothesis test GroundedAbstract *From Halfpenny (1990)

48. RULES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Marshall and Rossman (1995) formulated the rules: 1. informational adequacy – sufficient information to respond to the variables of the study 2. efficiency – strategies ensure adequacy of data collected at the least cost and effort 3. ethical considerations – respect the rights of the participants in the study

49. TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 1. Case study – entails selection of particular level of analytic interest on an organization focusfocus timingtiming number of groups/personsnumber of groups/persons 2. Historical research – systematic collection and evaluation of data related to the past in order to gain insights into causes/effects and explain present and future 3. Ethnography – focuses on the culture of a group of people

50. 4. Phenomenology – a paradigm or a philosophy that answers the question on the structure and essence of experience of this phenomenon 5. Heuristic inquiry – bringing personal experience and insights of the researcher 6. Hermeneutics – study of interpretative understanding of meaning with focus on context and original prupose (William Dilthey)

51. STRATEGIES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 1. Participant observation – involves observation, organization and interpretation of data, where the observer is part of the context being observed who is in the group?who is in the group? what is the setting?what is the setting? what is the purpose?what is the purpose? what is the social behavior?what is the social behavior? what is the frequency and duration?what is the frequency and duration?

52. 2. Interviews – complement data from participant observation with interviews 3. Non-participant observation – involves merely watching what is happening and recording on- the-spot events

53. Sample Historical/Case Study: HISTORY OF PHILIPPINE NEWS AGENCY – ITS CREATION AND RELATION TO GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY Introduction Introduction PNA is a government agency, established in 1973 after Martial Law was declared. Owned by government, it is incapable of competent and objective reporting of events that deal with government. Inevitably, people cast doubts on the credibility of PNA as source of news. The study seeks to find out how it has done its role, what gave rise to PNA formation? Hence, this case study on historical creation and development of PNA. PNA is a government agency, established in 1973 after Martial Law was declared. Owned by government, it is incapable of competent and objective reporting of events that deal with government. Inevitably, people cast doubts on the credibility of PNA as source of news. The study seeks to find out how it has done its role, what gave rise to PNA formation? Hence, this case study on historical creation and development of PNA.

54. Problem: Problem: How was PNA created and how has it functioned in relation to government and society?How was PNA created and how has it functioned in relation to government and society? Objectives: (find out the…) Objectives: (find out the…) 1.socio-political conditions when PNA was created 2.provisions for the creation of PNA 3.how PNA reported events and effects on government 4.how PNA subscribers evaluate its performance 5.PNA status affects how its reported news 6.how PNA works under the government

55. Research Method Research Method Descriptive method using historical/case study. Secondary sources (records), observation of PNA and performance, interviewsDescriptive method using historical/case study. Secondary sources (records), observation of PNA and performance, interviews Sampling/Respondents Sampling/Respondents Purposive sampling/interview conducted with 10 respondents (officials of PNA and news editors, other individualsPurposive sampling/interview conducted with 10 respondents (officials of PNA and news editors, other individuals

56. Instrument Instrument Record book for data obtained from secondary sources, diary, interview guideRecord book for data obtained from secondary sources, diary, interview guide Data-GatheringData-Gathering April-September 1984April-September 1984 Analysis of Findings: Analysis of Findings: Press can be source of change.Press can be source of change. PNA potent force in media.PNA potent force in media. Professionalism prevented with attachment to government.Professionalism prevented with attachment to government. PNA cannot prosper if in the hands of government.PNA cannot prosper if in the hands of government. Make it a private enterprise.Make it a private enterprise.

57. Summary and Conclusion: Summary and Conclusion: Sword of Damocles in PNA head.Sword of Damocles in PNA head. Many concerns, mostly structural not freedom from government.Many concerns, mostly structural not freedom from government. Refuse to admit that they are cowed by government.Refuse to admit that they are cowed by government. PNA is government creation for safe information.PNA is government creation for safe information. Generally dependable and sound source of news.Generally dependable and sound source of news. But not based on principle of truth.But not based on principle of truth. PNA lives up to the reality that it is part of government.PNA lives up to the reality that it is part of government.

58. Implications and Recommendations: Implications and Recommendations: These are media realities.These are media realities. Effects on working for government on fairness and objectivity.Effects on working for government on fairness and objectivity. Political leadership utilizes media for self-preservation.Political leadership utilizes media for self-preservation. Media chores for government carried out at the expense of journalistic principles.Media chores for government carried out at the expense of journalistic principles. Demonstrate how media phenomenon can be understood.Demonstrate how media phenomenon can be understood.