1. Jan Roscoe Publications OCR Examinations AS and A Level Physical Education AS / A year 1 (A1) AS H155 / A Component 01 Physiological factors affecting performance 2.1 Skill acquisition Types and methods of practice Transfer of skills

2. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 2 2.1 Skill acquisitionINDEX 33CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL - background 3 66SKILL KEYWORDS DEFINITIONS 6 99CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM 9 1111CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM 11 1313CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM 13 1515CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT) CONTINUUM 15 1717CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM 17 1919CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL - LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM 19 2121PRESENTATION OF SKILL 21 2222MANIPULATION OF SKILL 22 2323PRESENTATION OF SKILLS 23 2727PRACTICE METHODS 27 3232KEY FEATURES OF PRACTICE SESSIONS 32 3333TRANSFER 33 3939IMPACT OF PRACTICE ON LEARNING 39

3. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 3 2.1 Skill acquisition CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL - background

4. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 4 2.1 Skill acquisition CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL - background USES OF THE WORD SKILL technique technique example: feint or dodge example: feint or dodge sport sport example: classifications example: classifications quality quality example: skilful performance example: skilful performance CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL efficient efficient –no waste of energy –the movement seems effortless coordinated coordinated –flowing and fluid movement controlled controlled –the performer has control over the movement good technique good technique –the movement follows an accepted correct technical model

5. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 5 2.1 Skill acquisition CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL - background CHARACTERISTICS OF SKILL consistent consistent –can be repeated correctly learned learned –skill has been practised until retained in long term memory predetermined predetermined –the performer has a goal aesthetic aesthetic –the movement is pleasing and looks good SKILLED PERFORMERS can vary the outcome can vary the outcome can vary the timing and scope of action can vary the timing and scope of action can focus attention appropriately can focus attention appropriately can anticipate can anticipate Helen Roscoe Photography

6. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 6 2.1 Skill acquisition SKILL KEYWORDS DEFINITIONS BALANCE a psychomotor ability - maintenance of the body’s centre of mass within the base of support to allow pause, change of direction, stillness a psychomotor ability - maintenance of the body’s centre of mass within the base of support to allow pause, change of direction, stillness CLASSIFICATION OF SKILL the means by which skills which have common characteristics are grouped together the means by which skills which have common characteristics are grouped together CLOSED SKILL a skill performed in a fixed environment, example: a discus throw a skill performed in a fixed environment, example: a discus throw CONTINUOUS SKILLS skills with no obvious beginnings and endings skills with no obvious beginnings and endings Helen Roscoe Photography

7. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 7 2.1 Skill acquisition SKILL KEYWORDS - DEFINITIONS CONTINUUM OF SKILLS a range of skill characteristics a range of skill characteristicsCOORDINATION a psychomotor ability which allows efficient transmission of information through the nervous system to create required movements a psychomotor ability which allows efficient transmission of information through the nervous system to create required movements DISCRETE SKILLS skills with clear beginnings and endings, example: discus throw skills with clear beginnings and endings, example: discus throw EXTERNALLY-PACED SKILLS skills where the timing and form are determined by what is happening in the environment, example: receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game skills where the timing and form are determined by what is happening in the environment, example: receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game FINE SKILL skills involving small movements of specific body parts, example: potting a ball at snooker skills involving small movements of specific body parts, example: potting a ball at snooker

8. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 8 2.1 Skill acquisition SKILL KEYWORDS - DEFINITIONS GROSS SKILL involve large muscle groups and movements of the whole body, example: discus throw involve large muscle groups and movements of the whole body, example: discus throwLEARNING a relatively permanent change of performance resulting from practice or experience a relatively permanent change of performance resulting from practice or experience OPEN SKILLS skills in which the form of the action is determined by the environment and therefore is constantly changing, example: receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game skills in which the form of the action is determined by the environment and therefore is constantly changing, example: receiving a pass from another player in a soccer game SELF-PACED SKILLS the performer has control over the rate at which the action takes place and also the timing of the start of the action, example: discus throw the performer has control over the rate at which the action takes place and also the timing of the start of the action, example: discus throw SERIAL SKILLS where several distinct elements are joined together to form an integrated movement, example: triple jump where several distinct elements are joined together to form an integrated movement, example: triple jump

9. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 9 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM SIMPLE COMPLEX sprinting throwingsnookergymnasticgymnastic tumblefloor exercise Jan Roscoe Helen Roscoe Photography Wikimedia commons/Jeppe2

10. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 10 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL SIMPLE - COMPLEX (DIFFICULTY) CONTINUUM SIMPLE COMPLEX sprinting throwingsnookergymnasticgymnastic tumblefloor exercise simple skills simple skills –are straightforward skills –with few subroutines –requiring little concentration and cognitive activity on the part of the performer complex skills complex skills –are complicated skills –requiring a lot of attention or practice –the complexity of which can be perceived differently by different individuals –require a large number of (interlinked) subroutines, some of which may be habitual and learned –which affects the ease with which the performer performs the skill

11. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 11 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM OPEN CLOSED soccersoccertennistennissoccershot goal save passstrokeservepenaltyputt

12. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 12 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL OPEN - CLOSED (ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE) CONTINUUM open skills open skills –require perceptual monitoring (the performer perceives the information which stimulates the skill response) –occur in an unpredictable environment –the form of action is constantly being varied according to what is happening around the performer –have no clear beginning or end and are usually externally paced closed skills closed skills –are prelearned and habitual –usually occur in the autonomous phase of learning –have no external requirements –have a clear beginning and end –occur in a predictable environment –the technical requirements of the skill conform to a specific model

13. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 13 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM EXTERNALLY-PACED SELF-PACED yachting tennissoccer divingtennis weight receiving serve gameserve lifting

14. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 14 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL EXTERNALLY-PACED - SELF-PACED (PACING) CONTINUUM EXTERNALLY-PACED SELF-PACED yachting tennissoccer divingtennis weight receiving serve gameserve lifting externally-paced skills externally-paced skills –the speed and precision with which the skill is executed –are controlled by the environment or surroundings of the performer –opposing teams or individuals in a game –or the weather or wind conditions self-paced skills self-paced skills –the rate of action is controlled by the performer

15. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 15 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT) CONTINUUM GROSS FINE weightjavelinnetballcricketgolften pin darts or liftingthrow passstrokeshotbowling snooker Helen Roscoe Photography Wikimedia commons/Darksidex

16. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 16 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL GROSS - FINE (MUSCULAR INVOLVEMENT) CONTINUUM GROSS FINE weightjavelinnetballcricketgolften pin darts or liftingthrow passstrokeshotbowling snooker gross skills use large muscle movements gross skills use large muscle movements associated with: associated with: –strength –endurance –power fine skills use small delicate muscle movements fine skills use small delicate muscle movements associated with: associated with: –speed –accuracy –efficiency

17. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 17 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM DISCRETE SERIAL CONTINUOUS weightjavelinhigh basketballrunning liftingthrowjump dribble Helen Roscoe Photography Jan Roscoe Helen Roscoe Photography

18. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 18 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL DISCRETE - SERIAL - CONTINUOUS (CONTINUITY) CONTINUUM DISCRETE SERIAL CONTINUOUS weightjavelinhigh basketballrunning liftingthrowjump dribble discrete skills discrete skills –have a clear beginning and end –can be performed by themselves without linkage to other skills –the skill can be repeated but the performer starts again serial skills serial skills –have a number of discrete skills –which are linked together into a performance consisting of several phases continuous skills continuous skills –cannot be split up into subroutines or easily distinguishable parts –but last a relatively long time –as long as the performer wishes

19. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 19 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM LOW ORGANISATION HIGH ORGANISATION swimming cycling gymnastic move strokepole vault Helen Roscoe Photography

20. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 20 2.1 Skill acquisition CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKILL LOW - HIGH ORGANISATIONAL CONTINUUM LOW ORGANISATION HIGH ORGANISATION swimming cycling gymnastic move strokepole vault skills with low organisation skills with low organisation –are uncomplicated and have little organisational structure –subroutines tend to be discrete –and may be practised separately skills with high organisation skills with high organisation –have a complex organisational structure –subroutines are closely linked –and cannot be practised separately (the skill must be practised as a whole) –require far more attention and concentration to be performed successfully

21. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 21 2.1 Skill acquisition PRESENTATION OF SKILLS the ways in which a skill can be taught to maximise performance the ways in which a skill can be taught to maximise performance FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF METHOD the type of skills to be taught the type of skills to be taught the complexity of the skill the complexity of the skill the environment the environment the ability level of the performer the ability level of the performer the motivational level of the performer the motivational level of the performer refer to previous presentation for the details refer to previous presentation for the details

22. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 22 2.1 Skill acquisition MANIPULATION OF SKILLS PART METHODS PROGRESSIVE PART METHOD suitable for complex tasks / skills helps chaining of complex skills learned independently limited attentional demands coordination of spatial / temporal components good transfer to whole pure part method A ---> B ---> C ---> D -----> ABCD progressive part method A --> B --> AB --> C --> ABC --> D --> ABCD whole part whole method ABCD --> A --> B --> C --> D --> ABCD

23. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 23 2.1 Skill acquisition skill or task:performer will: WHOLE is of low complexity or simple taskbe experienced METHOD has high organisationhave high levels of attention METHOD has high organisationhave high levels of attention has interrelated subroutinesbe in later stages of learning has discrete skillsbe older has discrete skillsbe older short duration or rapid or ballisticbe highly motivated short duration or rapid or ballisticbe highly motivated cannot be broken down into partsuse distributed practice cannot be broken down into partsuse distributed practice temporal or spatial coordination required temporal or spatial coordination required PRESENTATION OF SKILLS

24. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 24 2.1 Skill acquisition skill or task:performer will: PART METHODhas high complexitybe a beginner has low organisationhave limited attention span has independent subroutinesin early stages of learning serial taskshave problems with particular aspect of a skill is slow have limited motivation is of long durationuse massed practice is of long durationuse massed practice contains dangerous skills contains dangerous skills PRESENTATION OF SKILLS

25. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 25 2.1 Skill acquisition advantagesdisadvantages WHOLE no time wasted in assemblingineffective with complex tasks METHOD parts useful for discrete skillsnot appropriate for dangerous tasks retains feeling of flownot good for performer of low ability retains feeling of flownot good for performer of low ability subroutines linked easily learner develops own schema learner develops own schema transfer from practice to real situations likely to be positive transfer from practice to real situations likely to be positive PRESENTATION OF SKILLS

26. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 26 2.1 Skill acquisition advantagesdisadvantages PART METHODserial tasks can be broken downtransfer from part to whole and learned in componentsmay be ineffective demand on learner reducedhighly organised skills may not good for simple skillsbe possible to break down demand on learner reducedhighly organised skills may not good for simple skillsbe possible to break down confidence may grow quicklyawareness of end product lost confidence may grow quicklyawareness of end product lost motivation evolves from loss of continuity or flow progress motivation evolves from loss of continuity or flow progress suitable for dangerous skillsloss of kinaesthesis suitable for dangerous skillsloss of kinaesthesis fatigue reduced for can be demotivating demanding skills fatigue reduced for can be demotivating demanding skills teacher can focus on specific possibly time consuming point teacher can focus on specific possibly time consuming point provides stages of success provides stages of success PRESENTATION OF SKILLS

27. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 27 2.1 Skill acquisition PRACTICE METHODS PRACTICE CONDITIONS different ways of setting up training sessions to achieve optimum performance

28. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 28 2.1 Skill acquisition VARIABLE PRACTICE in this method practice conditions are varied to encourage the formation of schema (patterns of memory including reference to the nerve pathways involved in performing a skill) in this method practice conditions are varied to encourage the formation of schema (patterns of memory including reference to the nerve pathways involved in performing a skill) practice conditions should be as realistic as possible practice conditions should be as realistic as possible in as many different situations as possible in as many different situations as possible as near to the competitive or match situation as possible as near to the competitive or match situation as possible relevant to open skills relevant to open skills PRACTICE METHODS Jan Roscoe

29. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 29 2.1 Skill acquisition FIXED PRACTICE in this method practice conditions stay the same to encourage the formation of schema relevant to closed skills in this method practice conditions stay the same to encourage the formation of schema relevant to closed skills practice conditions should be as realistic as possible practice conditions should be as realistic as possible and the same skill is repeated many times and the same skill is repeated many times as near to the competitive or match situation as possible as near to the competitive or match situation as possible PRACTICE METHODS Helen Roscoe Photography

30. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 30 2.1 Skill acquisition MASSED PRACTICE practice is done with no rest intervals with sessions long in duration practice is done with no rest intervals with sessions long in duration good for ‘grooving’ of skills and to encourage an habitual response good for ‘grooving’ of skills and to encourage an habitual response good for discrete skills of short duration good for discrete skills of short duration can lead to fatigue and boredom can lead to fatigue and boredom there may be elements of negative transfer there may be elements of negative transfer PRACTICE METHODS

31. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 31 2.1 Skill acquisition DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE training sessions which include rest intervals which could involve mental practice training sessions which include rest intervals which could involve mental practice good for the beginner and most skill learning good for the beginner and most skill learning gives time to recover physically and mentally gives time to recover physically and mentally good for potentially dangerous situations good for potentially dangerous situations PRACTICE METHODS Jan Roscoe

32. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 32 2.1 Skill acquisition KEY FEATURES OF PRACTICE SESSIONS

33. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 33 2.1 Skill acquisitionTRANSFER TRANSFER influence of one skill on the performance of another

34. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 34 2.1 Skill acquisition POSITIVE TRANSFER occurs when learning in one task is enhanced by learning in another task occurs when learning in one task is enhanced by learning in another task example: learning a golf stroke may be enhanced by virtue of the fact that the player is a good cricketer example: learning a golf stroke may be enhanced by virtue of the fact that the player is a good cricketer TRANSFER

35. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 35 2.1 Skill acquisition NEGATIVE TRANSFER occurs when the learning of a new task is interfered with by the knowledge of a similar activity occurs when the learning of a new task is interfered with by the knowledge of a similar activity example: the flexible use of the wrist needed for badminton may interfere with the firm wrist needed for tennis example: the flexible use of the wrist needed for badminton may interfere with the firm wrist needed for tennis TRANSFER

36. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 36 2.1 Skill acquisitionTRANSFER PROACTIVE TRANSFER influence of one skill on a skill yet to be learned example: having learned the forehand drive in tennis, the action is then modified to the forehand drive with top spin RETROACTIVE TRANSFER influence of one skill on a skill that has previously been learned example: a hockey player learns the flicking skill which may have a negative effect on the previously learned push (the push pass may be lifted unnecessarily)

37. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 37 2.1 Skill acquisitionTRANSFER BILATERALTRANSFER (LIMB TO LIMB) this is the transfer which takes place from one limb to another this is the transfer which takes place from one limb to another sometimes called lateralisation sometimes called lateralisation example: a soccer player learns to kick a ball with the non- preferred foot, the actions are learnt through reference by the brain to the preferred foot example: a soccer player learns to kick a ball with the non- preferred foot, the actions are learnt through reference by the brain to the preferred foot ZERO TRANSFER no transfer at all may occur even between skills which appear to be similar no transfer at all may occur even between skills which appear to be similar example: learning at squash may have zero transfer from weight training example: learning at squash may have zero transfer from weight training

38. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 38 2.1 Skill acquisition SKILL TO SKILL between two skills between two skills evidence suggests little long-term transfer evidence suggests little long-term transfer PRACTICE TO PERFORMANCE positive transfer is likely to occur only if environmental conditions are similar in both situations positive transfer is likely to occur only if environmental conditions are similar in both situations practices should simulate the stimuli and cues which occur in a performance practices should simulate the stimuli and cues which occur in a performance TRANSFER

39. indexpreviousnext OCR AS / A1 Level Physical Education 2.1 skill classification-types methods of practice-transfer of skills 39 2.1 Skill acquisition IMPACT OF PRACTICE ON LEARNING PRACTICE repetition of a skill will improve the outcome of learning practice makes perfect, perfect practice makes a perfect performance the structure of practice should depend on the task, the learning situation, and the stage of learning of the performer you should use time efficiently you should attempt to construct the practice tasks to be as near to the desired technical model as possible the method of guidance used will depend on the learning task, and the stage of learning as above practice tasks should be seen to be relevant to the specific needs of the performance