1. An Introduction to THEORIES of LEARNING CHAPTER An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 11 Gestalt Theory Ninth Edition

2. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Jean Piaget (1896—1980)

3. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Piaget’s Discovery Working on the standardization of intelligence tests. A child’s incorrect answers to test questions were more informative than the correct answers. Mistakes generally made by children of one age were qualitatively different from mistakes made by children of different ages.

4. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Major Theoretical Concepts Intelligence  An intelligent act is one that causes an approximation to the conditions optimal for an organism’s survival.  How intelligence manifests itself at any given time will necessarily vary as conditions vary.

5. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Major Theoretical Concepts Schemata  The potential to act in a certain way was labeled schema (plural: schemata).  Aspects of any particular manifestation of a schema are called content.

6. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Major Theoretical Concepts Assimilation and Accommodation  Assimilation is responding to the environment in accordance with one’s cognitive structure.  Accommodation is a process by which the cognitive structure is modified.

7. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Major Theoretical Concepts Assimilation and Accommodation  Referred to as functional invariants  Occur at all levels of development  Less accommodation as one ages

8. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Equilibration: Piaget on Reinforcement Equilibration  An innate tendency to create a harmonious relationship between self and environment.  Equilibration is defined as the continuous drive toward equilibrium or balance.

9. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Equilibration: Piaget on Reinforcement Failure of assimilation to respond to unique aspects of the environment causes cognitive disbalance. Lack of cognitive balance has motivational properties that keep the organism active until a balance is attained.

10. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Major Theoretical Concepts Interiorization  Children’s early interactions with the environment are strictly sensorimotor.  Decreasing dependence on the physical environment and the increased utilization of cognitive structures is called interiorization.

11. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Major Theoretical Concepts Operations  The child’s early adaptive responses are mainly overt.  As interiorization continues, adaptive responses become more covert.  Piaget called these internal covert actions operations.

12. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Major Theoretical Concepts Most important characteristic of an operation is that it is reversible. Reversibility means that once something is thought, it can be “unthought.”

13. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Major Theoretical Concepts Early operations depend on events experienced directly: concrete operations. Later operations are independent of physical experience: formal operations.

14. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Stages of Development Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to about Two Years)  Not an operational stage.  Children at this stage are egocentric.  Toward the end of this stage, children develop the concept of object permanence.

15. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Stages of Development Preoperational Thinking (about Two to Seven Years) A.Preconceptual thinking (about two to four years): rudimentary concept formation and transductive logic. B.Period of intuitive thought (about Four to Seven years): failure to develop conservation.

16. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Stages of Development Concrete Operations (about Seven to Eleven or Twelve Years)  Children develop conservation, along with the abilities to deal adequately with classes, with seriation, and with number concepts.

17. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved A Concrete Operational Problem Can you fill in the blank?

18. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Stages of Development Formal Operations (about Eleven or Twelve to Fourteen or Fifteen Years)  Children can now deal with hypothetical situations, and their thought processes are not tied down exclusively to what is immediate and real.  Thinking at this stage is as logical as it will ever become.

19. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Optimal Conditions for Learning Information must be presented that can be assimilated into the present cognitive structure but at the same time be different enough to necessitate a change in that structure. Miller and Dollard’s learning dilemma:  All learning depends on failure.

20. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Camp? Diametrically opposed to the S-R conception of knowledge. Cognitive structures are projected onto the physical environment and thus create it. Knowing the external world necessarily involves acting upon it and therefore changing it.

21. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Camp? Disagreement between the Gestalt theorists and Piaget is over the developmental nature of organizational ability. Piaget: Organizational abilities of the brain develop as cognitive structures develop.

22. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Camp? Progressive Equilibrium  Balance or organization sought is optimal under existing circumstances and that those circumstances are constantly changing.

23. An Introduction to Theories of Learning, Ninth Edition Matthew H. Olson | B. R. Hergenhahn Copyright © 2014 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Piaget on Education Educational experiences must be built around the learner’s cognitive structure. Optimal education involves mildly challenging experiences so that the dual processes of assimilation and accommodation can provide intellectual growth. Must be individualized.