SPEECH ACTS Saying as Doing See R. Nofsinger, Everyday Conversation, Sage, 1991

Would you like half of my lobster? It’s huge. No, thanks. I’m full. AN ORDINARY VERBAL EXCHANGE

Let’s explore what went on between Bill and John in the exchange above. And let’s not forget Mary. SPEECH ACT THEORY

According to Speech Act Theory, A number of things happened Bill said something (“Would you like half of my lobster?”) to John Bill spoke a meaningful utterance in a language What Bill said asked a question (syntax) What Bill said had some meaning associated with the words in the utterance, e.g., “you” referred to John; “lobster” referred to the food on Bill’s plate

According to Speech Act Theory n More things happened – Bill offered John some of his lobster – John rejected the offer – John gave a reason for rejecting the offer – John expressed his gratitude for the offer – Bill’s offer had the effect (perlocutionary act) of John’s feeling like Bill likes him – Bill’s offer had the effect of Mary’s feeling left out

According to Speech Act Theory Bill’s utterance contained a number of propositions. Bill felt relieved that John turned down his offer, because he really wanted the whole lobster And more--would you like to speculate on what else went on in this exchange?

HOW DO RECIPIENTS OF AN UTTERANCE KNOW WHAT SPEECH ACT THE SPEAKER IS DOING? n They know what the rules are for a particular speech act – constitutive rules – regulative rules n They know the context of the utterance – cultural – social – personal – physical Speech Act Families

Constitutive Rules Constitutive rules define an event. For instance, each piece in a chess game is allowed to move in certain ways and to capture in certain ways as defined by the rules of the game of chess. This type of rule is what is being called a constitutive rule. The rules make the event mean a certain thing or count as a certain thing, e.g., putting a basketball through the hoop counts as a score, one point, two points, three points, depending on where the shot is taken from. Can you think of other examples? MORE ON CONSTITUTIVE RULES

Conventional Foundations (Conditions) Constitute Speech Acts (constitutive rules) For an utterance to work properly as a particular speech act, certain characteristics must be present in the communicative situation, such as the occurrence of particular beliefs and intentions. That the speaker and hearer are using the same language, they can hear one another. For a promise, e.g., that the speaker says something about the speaker’s future behavior, that the hearer can infer that the speaker believes he/she is able to perform the behavior, and more.

Regulative Rules Rules that constrain when and where we may do a particular act. Greetings, e.g., should be done when people first make contact (not in the middle of the conversation). Initial greetings should be returned (answered). Regulative rules are social norms.

Imagination n Let’s explore via speculation some possible contexts for this conversational excerpt. n Please offer some possible scenarios

Speech Act Families n Commissives n Directives n Assertives n Expressives n Declarations

Commissives A commissive is an utterance that commits the speaker to some future behavior. For example, a promise commits the speaker to future behavior, as does an offer, making a vow, taking a pledge, giving a guarantee.

Directives n The purpose of a directive is to get the recipient to do something. n Examples of directives are: – requests – commands – suggestions – giving permission

Assertives n The purpose of assertives is to display the speaker’s belief in the propositional content of the utterance. – E.g., Bill has displayed his belief in the proposition, “This [sandwich] is huge.” n Assertives include: – statements, descriptions, assertions, predictions, speculations

Expressives n Expressions of the speaker’s psychological state about something (an event, an object, a behavior, or whatever) that has to do with either the speaker or the recipient. – E.g., compliments, apologies, welcomes, and thanks

Declarations n When a properly authorized speaker performs a declaration under the proper conditions (as defined not only by pragmatic language conventions, but also by the rules of the particular institution involved), such a “successful performance guarantees that the propositional content corresponds to the world” (Searle, 1979, p. 17). – E.g., “You’re fired” uttered by the boss to an employee--the employee is thereby fired