CHAPTER 7, THE LOGIC OF SAMPLING

Chapter Outline  A Brief History of Sampling  Nonprobability Sampling  The Theory and Logic of Probability Sampling  Populations and Sampling Frames  Types of Sampling Designs  Multistage Cluster Sampling  Probability Sampling in Review  The Ethics of Sampling  Quick Quiz

 Sampling – The process of selecting observations.

A Brief History of Sampling  “President” Alf Landon  Literary Digest poll, 1936  Two million ballots mailed to people listed in telephone directory  Problems?  “President” Thomas E. Dewey  Gallup’s quota sampling  Problems?

Nonprobability Sampling  Nonprobability Sampling – Any technique in which samples are selected in some way not suggested by probability theory.  Available subjects  Purposive sampling  Snowball sampling  Quota sampling

 Reliance on Available Subjects  Convenience sampling  Does not allow for control over representativeness.  Only justified if less risky methods are unavailable.  Researchers must be very cautious about generalizing when this method is used.  When might this method be appropriate?

 Purposive or Judgmental Sampling – A type of nonprobability sampling in which the units to be observed are selected on the basis of the researcher’s judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative.  Small subsets of a population  Two-group comparison  Deviant cases  When might this method be appropriate?

 Snowball Sampling – A nonprobability sampling method whereby each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing.  Often used in field research, special populations  When might this method be appropriate?

 Quota Sampling – A type of nonprobability sampling in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of pre-specified characteristics, so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied.  Similar to probability sampling, but has problems: quota frame must be accurate, selection of sample elements may be biased  When might this method be appropriate?

 Selecting Informants  Informant – Someone who is well versed in the social phenomenon that you wish to study and who is willing to tell you what s/he knows about it.

The Theory and Logic of Probability Sampling  Probability Sampling – The general term for samples selected in accord with probability theory.  Often used for large-scale surveys.  If all members of a population were identical in all respects there would be no need for careful sampling procedures. However, this is rarely the same.  A sample of individuals from a population must contain the same variations that exist in the population.

Figure 7.2

 Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias  Bias – Those selected are not typical nor representative of the larger population.

Perfect Probability Sample

Less-Than-Perfect Probability Sample

Figure 7.3

 Representativeness and Probability of Selection  Representativeness – The quality of a sample of having the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected.  Samples need not be representative in all respects, only those relevant to the research.

 A sample will be representative of the population from which it is selected if all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected in the sample.  EPSEM (Equal Probability of Selection Method)

 Advantages of Probability Sampling 1. Probability samples are typically more representative than other types of samples because biases are avoided. 2. Probability theory permits researchers to estimate the accuracy or representativeness of the sample.

 Element – That unit of which a population is composed and which is selected in a sample.  Population – The theoretically specified aggregation of the elements in a study.  Study Population – A sampling method in which each element has an equal chance of selection independent of any other event in the selection process.

 Random Selection – Each element has an equal change of selection independent of any other event in the selection process.  Sampling Unit – That element of set of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling.

 Probability Theory, Sampling Distributions, and Estimates of Sampling Error  Parameter – A summary description of a given variable in a population.

Figure 7.4  The Sampling Distribution of Ten Cases

Figures 7.5 & 7.6

Figure 7.7

 Statistic – the summary description of a variable in a sample, used to estimate a population parameter.

Figure 7.8

Figure 7.9

Figure 7.10

 Sampling Error – The degree of error to be expected of a given sample design.

 Confidence Levels and Confidence Intervals  Confidence Level – The estimated probability that a population parameter lies within a given confidence interval.  Confidence Interval – The range of values within which a population parameter is estimated to lie.

Populations and Sampling Frames  Sampling Frame – A list of units composing a population from which a sample is selected.  If the sample is to be representative of the population, it is essential that the sampling frame include all members of the population.

 Guidelines for Populations and Sampling Frames 1. Findings based on a sample represent only the aggregation of elements that compose the sampling frame. 2. Sampling frames do not include all the elements their names might imply. Omissions are inevitable. 3. To be generalized, all elements must have equal representation in the frame.

Types of Sampling Designs  Simple Random Sampling  Systematic Sampling  Stratified Sampling  Implicit Stratification in Systematic Sampling

 Simple Random Sampling – A type of probability sampling in which the units composing a population are assigned numbers. A set of random numbers is generated and the units having those numbers are included in the sample.  Not necessarily the most accurate sampling method.

Figure 7.11

 Systematic Sampling – A type of probability sampling in which every k th unit in a list is selected for inclusion in the sample.  Slightly more accurate than simple random sampling.

 Sampling Interval – The standard distance between elements selected from a population in the sample.  Sampling Ratio – the proportion of elements in the population that are selected to be in a sample.

 Stratified Sampling  Stratification – The grouping of the units composing a population into homogenous groups (strata) before sampling.  Slightly more accurate than simple random sampling.  Stratification is a modification to simple random and systematic sample methods.

Figure 7.12

 Implicit Stratification in Systematic Sampling

 Illustration: Sampling University Students

Multistage Cluster Sampling  Cluster Sampling – A multistage sampling in which natural groups are sampled initially with the members of each selected group being sub-sampled afterward.  Used when it is not practical or possible to create a list of all elements that compose the target population.  Highly efficient, but less accurate.

Figure 7.13

 Stratification in Multistage Cluster Sampling

 Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS) Sampling – Aa type of multistage cluster sample in which clusters are selected not with equal probabilities but with probabilities proportionate to their sizes—as measured by the number of units to be sub-sampled.  A more sophisticated form of cluster sampling.

 Disproportionate Sampling and Weighting  Weighting – Assigning different weights to cases that were selected into a sample with different probabilities of selection.

Quick Quiz

1. One of the most visible uses of survey sampling lies in _____. A. political polling B. probability sampling C. core sampling D. nonprobability sampling

Answer: A. One of the most visible uses of survey sampling lies in political polling.

2. _____ sampling occurs when units are selected on the basis of pre-specified characteristics. A. Snowball B. Quota C. Purposive D. Probability

Answer: B. Quota sampling occurs when the units are selected on the basis of pre-specified characteristics.

3. _____ describes a sample whose aggregate characteristics closely approximate the aggregate characteristics of the population. A. Exclusion B. Probability sampling C. EPSEM D. Representativeness

Answer: D. Representativeness describes a sample whose aggregate characteristics closely approximate the aggregate characteristics of the population.

4. A _____ is the list of elements from which a probability sample is selected. A. confidence level B. confidence interval C. sampling frame D. systematic sample

Answer: C. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which a probability sample is selected.

5. _____ is the general term for samples selected in accord with probability theory. A. Nonprobability analysis B. Correlation C. Probability sampling

Answer: C. Probability sampling is the general term for samples selected in accord with probability theory.

6. A _____ population is that aggregation of elements from which a sample if actually selected. A. theoretical B. small C. large D. concept E. study

Answer: E. A study population is that aggregation of elements from which a sample if actually selected.

7. Cluster sampling may be used when it is impossible to compile an exhaustive list of the elements composing the target population. A. True B. False

Answer: A. Cluster sampling may be used when it is impossible to compile an exhaustive list of the elements composing the target population.