Facilitating Feelings of Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Athletes Tony Amorose, Ph.D. Illinois State University

Questions? Why do people get involved in sport? Why do they continue to participate?

Common Motives for Sport Participation competence (learn and improve, reach goals)competence (learn and improve, reach goals) affiliation (make new friends, be with friends)affiliation (make new friends, be with friends) fitness (get or stay in shape, look good)fitness (get or stay in shape, look good) team aspects (being part of group)team aspects (being part of group) competition (to win, be successful)competition (to win, be successful) fun (excitement, challenge, action)fun (excitement, challenge, action)

The Nature of Motivation According to Self-Determination Theory motives can be classified along a continuum of self-determinationmotives can be classified along a continuum of self-determination

non self-determined Continuum of Self-Determination self-determined Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Amotivation integratedregulationidentifiedregulationintrojectedregulationexternalregulation

Intrinsic Motivation (IM) engaging in an activity for its own sake (e.g., for the fun, pleasure, or sense of personal mastery provided by the task itself)engaging in an activity for its own sake (e.g., for the fun, pleasure, or sense of personal mastery provided by the task itself) types of intrinsic motivation…types of intrinsic motivation… –IM to know –IM to accomplish –IM to experience stimulation

Extrinsic Motivation (EM) engaging in an activity for instrumental reasons (e.g., for rewards, social approval, please others, personal pressure or goals)engaging in an activity for instrumental reasons (e.g., for rewards, social approval, please others, personal pressure or goals) types of extrinsic motivation…types of extrinsic motivation… –integrated regulation –identified regulation –introjected regulation –external regulation

Amotivation (AM) a state of lacking intention to act, and thus the relative absence of motivationa state of lacking intention to act, and thus the relative absence of motivation

Question? How would you classify these motives?

“For the excitement I feel when I am really involved in the activity.” “For the prestige of being an athlete.” “Because I would feel bad if I was not taking time to do it.” “For the pleasure it gives me to know more about the sport I practice.” “Because it is one of the best ways I have chosen to develop other aspects of myself.” “It is not clear to me anymore; I don’t think my place is in sport anymore.” Why Do You Practice Your Sport? IM EM EM IM EM AM

Important Points people have multiple motivespeople have multiple motives likely a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic reasonslikely a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic reasons Key Questions which reasons are most important? do you participate primarily for intrinsic or extrinsic reasons?

Motivational Orientation intrinsic motivational orientation participating primarily for intrinsic reasons (i.e., self-determined reasons)participating primarily for intrinsic reasons (i.e., self-determined reasons) extrinsic motivational orientation participating primarily for extrinsic reasons (i.e., more non self-determined reasons)participating primarily for extrinsic reasons (i.e., more non self-determined reasons) Question…Which are You?

Question? Does it matter if we are more intrinsically or extrinsically motivated?

Potential Benefits Those with an intrinsic motivational orientation (i.e., more self-determined motivation) are more likely to… 1.consistently demonstrate motivated behavior (i.e., choice, effort, persistence) 2.experience greater enjoyment 3.experience lower anxiety 4.exhibit greater learning and performance 5.demonstrate better concentration 6.be creative in their activities

Question? How can we promote or facilitate intrinsic motivation in sport participants?

Wonder Years Video Describe Paul’s motivated behavior at the beginning, middle, and end of the show. Speculate on the primary reasons why Paul participates at these points in the show (intrinsic vs. extrinsic). What are some specific factors (personal, situational) that may have contributed to the change in Paul’s motivation?

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) Basic Premise the fulfillment of the basic needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness are essential for the facilitation of self- determined motivation, social development, and personal well-being

Three Basic Needs need for competence –the need to interact effectively with the environment need for autonomy (self-determination) –the need to engage in activities of one’s choosing and to be the origin of one’s behavior need for relatedness –the need to feel connected to others and to experience a sense of belongingness

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) sub-theory within SDTsub-theory within SDT goal is to specify conditions that support or undermine IMgoal is to specify conditions that support or undermine IM IM will be maximized if individuals feel competent and autonomousIM will be maximized if individuals feel competent and autonomous

Key Point Any event (external or internal) which can affect perceived competence or self- determination will ultimately impact IM Possible events? rewards imposed goals competitionfeedback surveillanceleadership deadlinesothers?

Functional Aspect of Events 1. controlling aspect –related to feeling or autonomy or self-determination event perceived as “controlling” decreased autonomy decreased intrinsic motivation event perceived as providing “choice” increased autonomy increased intrinsic motivation

Functional Aspect of Events 2. informational aspect –related to feelings of competence if event provides positive info increased perceived competence increased intrinsic motivation if event provides negative info decreased perceived competence decreased intrinsic motivation

Important Point It is the functional significance of the events that will impact IM Which aspect is most important or salient to the individual? How does the individual perceive the event?

Other Important Points IM is only evident for activities that are…IM is only evident for activities that are… –personally interesting –provide optimal challenges changes in perceived competence will only affect IM under conditions where the one feels autonomouschanges in perceived competence will only affect IM under conditions where the one feels autonomous relatedness has a more distal affect on IMrelatedness has a more distal affect on IM

Research on IM rewardsrewards competitioncompetition coaching/instructor feedbackcoaching/instructor feedback leadership styles and behaviorsleadership styles and behaviors

Research on Rewards and IM 1.Random Assignment to Groups control (no reward)control (no reward) experimental (received reward for participation)experimental (received reward for participation) 2.Perform an Interesting Task (e.g., puzzle, game) 3.Experimental Group Receives Reward 4.Experimenter Leaves 5.Free Choice Period 6.Time Spent on Task as Measure of IM Basic Procedures of Lab Research

Results Those receiving a reward spend significantly less time participating in free choice period Conclusion Rewards undermine IM

Potential Problems? 1.Lab-based (not “real world of sport”) 2.Alternative reasons for participating during the free choice period 3.Others?

Scholarships and IM Purpose To determine whether scholarship and non- scholarship athletes differed on level of IM Method male football players scholarshipscholarship non-scholarshipnon-scholarshipMeasures IM (i.e., enjoyment, free time spent practicing, participate without scholarship?) Ryan (1977)

Results scholarship athletes reported lower IMscholarship athletes reported lower IM IM decreased every year the athletes had scholarshipIM decreased every year the athletes had scholarshipConclusion scholarship (rewards) undermine IM

Ryan (1980) Basic Results … scholarship football players reported lower IM than non-scholarship football playersscholarship football players reported lower IM than non-scholarship football players scholarship wrestlers and female athletes reported higher IM than non-scholarship athletesscholarship wrestlers and female athletes reported higher IM than non-scholarship athletes replicated earlier study but examined football players, wrestlers, and female athletes from a variety of sports How can you explain these results?

Explanation of Results Using CET wrestlers and female athletes scholarships provided positive competence information given number of scholarships availablescholarships provided positive competence information given number of scholarships available  perceived competence   IM  perceived competence   IM football players scholarships provided no competence information given number of scholarships available, rather…scholarships provided no competence information given number of scholarships available, rather… scholarships viewed as controllingscholarships viewed as controlling  self-determination   IM  self-determination   IM

Conclusions 1.rewards are not necessarily bad, rather it depends on how they are perceived 2.there are conditions where rewards are not detrimental to IM (e.g., rewards given contingent to performance or achievement) 3.rewards will not undermine IM if there was no interest in the activity in the first place

Research on IM rewardsrewards competitioncompetition coaching/instructor feedbackcoaching/instructor feedback leadership styles and behaviorsleadership styles and behaviors

Leadership Styles and IM Question? How should the following leadership styles influence athletes’ IM?

Hollembeak and Amorose (in press) Purpose To test whether perceived competence, autonomy, and relatedness mediate the relationship between athletes’ perceptions of their coaches’ behavior and the athletes’ IM To determine the specific coaching behaviors that are positively or negatively related to IM

Methods Participants Division I college athletes (M age = 19.73)Division I college athletes (M age = 19.73) –male (n = 146) –female (n = 134) –various individual and team sports years of participation (M =10.19, SD =1.36)years of participation (M =10.19, SD =1.36) years with current coach (M =1.40, SD =1.42)years with current coach (M =1.40, SD =1.42)

Measures perceived coaching behaviors (LSS)perceived coaching behaviors (LSS) intrinsic motivation (SMS)intrinsic motivation (SMS) fundamental needs according to SDTfundamental needs according to SDT –perceived competence –autonomy –relatedness

Results mediational effect of needs coaching behaviors as positive or negative predictors of IM

Full Model Training and Instruction Positive Feedback Autocratic Behavior Democratic Behavior Social Support Perceived Competence Relatedness Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy “Model is a perfect fit!”

Mediational Model Training and Instruction Positive Feedback Autocratic Behavior Democratic Behavior Social Support Perceived Competence Relatedness Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy

Training and Instruction Positive Feedback Autocratic Behavior Democratic Behavior Social Support Perceived Competence Relatedness Intrinsic Motivation Hypothesized Model Autonomy

Modified Mediational Model Training and Instruction Positive Feedback Autocratic Behavior Democratic Behavior Social Support Perceived Competence Relatedness Intrinsic Motivation Autonomy

Results mediational effect of needs coaching behaviors as positive or negative predictors of IM groups differences in pattern of relationships?

Limitations only considered IM other behaviors that may impact motivation Practical Implications democratic coaching styles may facilitate more intrinsically motivated athletes

Summary IM affected by perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatednessIM affected by perceptions of competence, autonomy, and relatedness important given benefits of IM orientationimportant given benefits of IM orientation SDT is practical in sense that we can use this information to facilitate IMSDT is practical in sense that we can use this information to facilitate IM

Question? How can we promote or facilitate… perceived competenceperceived competence autonomyautonomy relatednessrelatedness