CONTENT ANALYSIS An analysis of the content of a communication A technique that enables researchers to study human behavior in an indirect way by analyzing communications

APPLICATION OF CONTENT ANALYSIS wide applicability in educational research give researchers insights into problems Reasons to do a content analysis : 1) to obtain descriptive information of one kind or another 2) to analyze observational and interview data 3) to test hypothesis and to check other research findings 4) to obtain useful information in dealing with educational problems

STEPS IN CONTENT ANALYSIS 1) Determine objectives - to obtain descriptive information about a topic 2) Define terms - clearly defined the important terms, eg. Violence, minority individuals and back-to-basic 3) Specify the unit of analysis 4) Locate relevant data - locate the data that will be analyzed and that are relevant to the objectives (textbooks, magazines, lesson plan)

STEPS IN CONTENT ANALYSIS 5) Develop a rationale - need a conceptual link to explain how the data are related to the objectives and the contents should be clear 6) Develop a sampling plan (stratified sampling and cluster sampling) 7) Formulate coding categories - formulate categories that are relevant to investigation - manifest content: a communication refers to the specific, clear, surface content (words, pictures, images-easily categorized) - latent content: refers to the meaning underlying what is contained in a communication

FORMULATE CODING CATEGORIES

CODING AN INTERVIEW

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY AS APPLIED TO CONTENT ANALYSYS Reliability: can be checked by comparing the results of two independent scores (categorizers). Validity: can be checked by comparing data obtained from manifest content to that obtained from latent content

DATA ANALYSIS Using frequencies (the number of specific incidents found in the data) and proportion of particular occurrences to total occurrences. Use coding to develop themes to facilitate synthesis Computer analysis is extremely use in coding data once categories have been determined.

ADVANTAGES Unobtrusive Can observed without being observed (eg: analyze the textbooks and other communication without the author or publisher being aware that it is being examined) Useful in analyzing interview and observational data Can delve into records and documents to get some feel for the social life of an earlier time Not limited by time and space Comparatively easy to do (simple and economical) Content analysis permits replication of a study by other researcher (data are always available) DISADVANTAGES Limited to recorded information (analysis of communication) Difficult to establish validity The research has recorders only of what has survived or what someone thought was of insufficient importance to write down ( what is considered important today might not even be available from the past There is a temptation among researchers to consider that the interpretations gleaned from a particular content analysis indicate the causes of a phenomenon rather than being a reflection of it.

ETHNOGRAPHIC Data Analysis Content Analysis Triangulation Patterns Key Events Visual Representations Statistics Crystallization

ETHNOGRAPHIC : TRIANGULATION Provide validity of an observationCan be implemented in any subject, level and setting Improves the quality of data and provide accuracy of interpretation Occur in natural setting

ETHNOGRAPHIC : TRIANGULATION

ETHNOGRAPHIC : PATTERNS Look for patterns of information Method to check reliability of information

ETHNOGRAPHIC : KEY EVENTS Key Events Occur in social group Data that describe the entire culture Convey tremendous information Help to explain the culture of a group

ETHNOGRAPHIC : VISUAL REPRESENTATION MAPS FLOW CHARTS ORGANIZATION CHARTSSOCIOGRAMSMATRICES ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES ADVANTAGESADVANTAGES

ETHNOGRAPHIC : STATISTICS PRESENTS A NUMBER OF PROBLEMS SMALL SAMPLES AND PURPOSIVE SAMPLES NONPARAMETRIC TECHNIQUES PARAMETRIC e.g. Chi Square Test Mean & Median – summarize frequency of action ONLY WHEN HAVE LARGE SAMPLES e.g. Chi Square Test Mean & Median – summarize frequency of action ONLY WHEN HAVE LARGE SAMPLES

ETHNOGRAPHIC : CRYSTALLIZATION Occasions when variety of data “fall into place” to make a coherent picture Gather up all thoughts at various stages and provide genuine insights. There is no single stage or time in this analysis.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH Focus primarily on the past Systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe, explain and thereby understand events that occurred sometime in the past

THE PURPOSES OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH 1.To make people aware of what has happened in the past so they may learn from past failures and successes 2. To learn how things were done in the past to see if they might be applicable to present-day problems and concerns 3. To assist in prediction 4. To test hypotheses concerning relationships or trends 5. To understand present educational practices and policies more fully

1. Defining the Problem 2. Locating relevant Sources of historical information 4. Presenting and interpreting the information 3. Summarizing and evaluating the information STEPS INVOLVED IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Step 1: Defining the Problem STEPS INVOLVED IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH historical aim to do more than just describe, they want to go beyond description to clarify and explain and sometimes to correct Same like any other research problem, they should be clearly and concisely stated, be manageable, have a defensible rationale an investigate a hypothesized relationship among variables Better to study in depth a well-defined problem that is perhaps more narrow than one would like than to pursue more broadly stated problem that cannot be sharply defined or fully resolved

Step 2: Locating Relevant Sources Categories of Sources historical source material can be group into 4 basic categories. 1.Documents  Are written or printed materials that have been produced in some form or another  Eg; bills, books, cartoons, court records, diaries 2. Numerical Records  Considered either as a separate type of source in and of themselves or as a subcategory of documents  Eg; test score, attendance figures, school budgets STEPS INVOLVED IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Categories of Sources (cont.) 3. Oral statements  Conduct oral interviews with people who were a part of past events 4. Relics  Any object whose physical or visual characteristics can provide some information about the past  Eg; furniture, artwork, clothing Step 2: Locating Relevant Sources STEPS INVOLVED IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Primary Versus Secondary Sources 1.A Primary Sources  Is one prepared by an individual who was a participant in or a direct witness to the event being described  Eg; an eyewitness account of the opening of a new school would an example 2. A Secondary Resources  Is a document prepared by an individual who was not a direct witness to an event but who obtained his description of the event from someone else  Eg; newspaper editorial commenting on a recent researchers’ strike would be an example. Step 2: Locating Relevant Sources STEPS INVOLVED IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Step 3: Summarizing Information Obtained from Historical Research  Determining the relevancy of the particular material to the question or problem being investigated  Recording the full bibliographic data of the source, organizing data one collects under categories related to the problem being studied and summarizing pertinent information ( facts, quotation and questions) STEPS INVOLVED IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

Step 4: Evaluating Historical Sources ~~~Was this document really written by the supposed author (i.e., is it genuine)?~~~ External criticism: -refers to the genuineness of any and all documents the researcher uses -several questions come to mind in evaluating the genuineness of a historical resources 1.Who wrote this document? 2.For what purposes was the document written? 3.When was the document written? 4.Where was the document written? 5.Under what conditions was the document written? 6.Do different forms or versions of the document exist? STEPS INVOLVED IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

~~~Is the information contained in this document true (i.e., is sit accurate?~~~ Internal criticism: -determine if the contents of the document are accurate -several questions to evaluate the accuracy 1.With regard to the author of the document Was the author present at the event he or she is describing? Was the author competent to describe the event? 2. With regard to the contents of the document Could the event described have occurred at that time? Would people have behaved as described? Step 4: Evaluating Historical Sources STEPS INVOLVED IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH

1.Some researcher prefer to operate from the theoretical model that helps them organize information they have collected 2.Some researcher use content analysis 3.A coding system may be useful when researcher immerse themselves in their information until patterns or themes suggest themselves 4.Recently, some historians have used quantitative data such as unemployment rates, to validate interpretations derived from documents DATA ANALYSIS IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH