Mr. Nichols PHHS
Introduce vital signs and their use in clinical practice Introduce basic laboratory tests and their use in clinical practice Discuss normal values and test interpretation
Temperature Pulse rate Respiration rate (RR) Blood pressure (BP)
Measure of body’s core temp (temp of internal organs) in ° F (or °C, 1C=1.8F) Locations: oral, rectum, ear Rectal = 0.5 – 0.7° F higher than oral temp Axilla = 0.3 – 0.4° F lower than oral temp Normal: 97.8 – 99° F (36.5 – 37.2° C) Critical: > 98.6° F orally or 99.8° F rectally (pyrexia [fever]); < 95° F (hypothermia)
Heart rate (HR) or number of heart beats/min Normal: 60 – 100/min ↑ (tachycardia): ↑ Na + intake, ↓ Na + loss, Excessive free body H 2 O loss ↓ (bradycardia): ↓ Na + intake, ↑ Na + loss, ↑ free body H 2 O
Number of breaths/min At rest Also note breathing effort or difficulty Normal: 15 – 20/min Critical: 25 ↑ (hyperventilation): ↑ Na + intake, ↓ Na + loss, Excessive free body H 2 O loss ↓ (hypoventilation): ↓ Na + intake, ↑ Na + loss, ↑ free body H 2 O
Measures the force of blood against the arterial vessel walls Measured while seated, after resting for 5 mins, arm heart level (if possible) Reported as a fraction (systolic/diastolic) & consists of 2 separate measurements: Systolic – pressure within artery during cardiac contraction Diastolic – pressure within artery during cardiac relaxation and filling Normal: < 120 mm Hg systolic and < 80 mm Hg diastolic Critical: > 220 mm Hg systolic or > 125 mm Hg diastolic ↑ (hypertension [htn]): ↑ Na + intake, ↓ Na + loss, Excessive free body H 2 O loss ↓ (hypotention): ↓ Na + intake, ↑ Na + loss, ↑ free body H 2 O
Provides information on cellular components of blood Includes RBC count, Hemoglobin (Hgb), Hematocrit (Hct), RBC indices, White blood cell (WBC) count and differential, Platelet count
Measurement of total WBC count Consists of total # of WBCs/mm 3 of peripheral venous blood Part of “routine” testing Useful for evaluation of infection, neoplasm, allergy & immunosuppression Normal: 4,000 – 10,000/mm 3 Critical: 30,000/mm 3 ↑ (leukocytosis): infection, malignancy, trauma, stress, hemorrhage, tissue necrosis, inflammation, dehydration, thyroid storm ↓ (leukopenia): drug toxicity, bone marrow failure, overwhelming infections, dietary deficiency, congenital marrow aplasia, bone marrow infiltration, autoimmune disease, hypersplenism
Measures # of circulating RBCs/mm 3 of peripheral venous blood Direct measure of RBC count Part of “routine” testing and anemia evaluation Normal: 3.5 – 5.5 x 10 6 /μL ↑: erythrocytosis, congenital heart disease, severe COPD, polycythemia vera, severe dehydration, hemoglobinopathies ↓: anemia, hemoglobinopathy, hemorrhage, bone marrow failure, renal disease, leukemia, prosthetic valves, normal pregnancy, multiple myeloma, Hodgkin disease, lymphoma, dietary deficiency
Measures total amount of Hgb in blood Indirect measure of RBC count Part of “routine” testing and anemia evaluation Normal: 12 – 15 g/dL Critical: 20 g/dL ↑: erythrocytosis, congenital heart disease, severe COPD, polycythemia vera, severe dehydration ↓: anemia, hemoglobinopathy, hemorrhage, bone marrow failure, renal disease, leukemia, prosthetic valves, normal pregnancy, multiple myeloma, Hodgkin disease, lymphoma, dietary deficiency
Measure of RBC percent of total blood vol Indirect measure of RBC # & volume Part of “routine” testing and anemia evaluation Normal: 36 – 48% Critical: 60% ↑: erythrocytosis, congenital heart disease, severe COPD, polycythemia vera, severe dehydration ↓: anemia, hemoglobinopathy, hemorrhage, bone marrow failure, renal disease, leukemia, prosthetic valves, normal pregnancy, multiple myeloma, Hodgkin disease, lymphoma, dietary deficiency
Measure of average volume/size of single RBC MCV = Hct (%) x 10/RBC (million/mm 3 ) Useful in anemia classification Normal: 80 – 100 mm 3 ↑ (macrocytic): pernicious anemia (vit B 12 deficiency), folic acid deficiency, antimetabolic therapy, alcoholism, chronic liver disease, hypothyroidism Normocytic: bone marrow failure/replacement, acute blood loss, chronic diseases, hemolytic anemias ↓ (microcytic): Fe deficiency anemia, thalassemia, anemia of chronic illness
Measure of average amount of hgb within a single RBC MCH = Hgb (g/dL) x 10/RBC (million/mm 3 ) Provides little additional info to other indices Normal: 24 – 32 pg ↑: macrocytic anemias ↓: microcytic anemia, hypochromic anemia
Measure of average [hgb] within a single RBC MCHC = Hgb (g/dL) x 100/Hct (%) 37 g/dL = maximum Hgb able to fit into an RBC (cannot be hyperchromic) Normal (normochromic): 32 – 36 g/dL ↑: spherocytosis, intravascular hemolysis, cold agglutinins ↓ (hypochromic): Fe deficiency anemia, thalassemia
Measure of variation of RBC size (indicator of degree of anisocytosis) Useful in anemia classification Normal: variation of 11.5 – 16.9% ↑: Fe deficiency anemia, vit B 12 or folate deficiency anemia, hemoglobinopathies, hemolytic anemias, posthemorrhagic anemias
Measurement of platelets (thrombocytes) Consists of actual # of platelets/mm 3 of peripheral venous blood Part of “routine” testing Useful for evaluation of petechiae, spontaneous bleeding, increasingly heavy menses or thrombocytopenia Useful for monitoring discourse/therapy of thrombocytopenia/bone marrow failure Normal: 150,000 – 400,000/mm 3 Critical: 1,000,000/mm 3 ↑ (thrombocytosis): malignant disorders, polycythemia vera, postsplenectomy syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, Fe deficiency anemia ↓ (thrombocytopenia): Hypersplenism, hemorrhage, immune thrombocytopenia, leukemia & other myelofibrosis disorders, TTP, DIC, SLE, chemotherapy, pernicious anemia
Leukocytosis – abnormally large number of leukocytes; generally indicated by WBC count of ≥ 10,000 cells/mm3 Lymphocytosis – form of actual or relative leukocytosis due to increase in numbers of lymphocytes Left shift – increase in the number of immature neutrophils (bands/stabs) found in the blood
Measurement of percentage of each WBC type in specimen Useful for infection, neoplasm, allergy & immunosuppression evaluations Normal: Neutrophils (50 – 70%), Lymphocytes (20 – 40%), Monocytes (2 – 8%), Eosinophils (0 – 5%), Basophils (0 – 2%) ↑: refer to individual cell types on chart ↓: refer to individual cell types on chart
Measures electrolytes, chemicals, metabolic end products & substrates Consists of Glucose, Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN), Creatinine, Na +, K +, Cl -, Bicarbonate (HCO 3 - ), Ca 2+
Direct measure of blood glucose Commonly used to evaluate diabetic pts Part of “routine” testing Normal: mg/dL Critical: 400 mg/dL ( ♂ ) or 400 mg/dL ( ♀ ) ↑ (hyperglycemia): DM, acute stress response, Cushing syndrome, pheochromocytoma, chronic renal failure, acute pancreatitis, acromegaly, corticosteroid therapy ↓ (hypoglycemia): insulinoma, hypothyroidism, hypopituitarism, Addison disease, extensive liver disease, insulin overdose, starvation
Measures urea nitrogen in blood End product of protein metabolism (produced in liver) Indirect measure of renal function & glomerular function (excretion) Measure of liver metabolic function Part of routine labs Usually interpreted along with Cr (less accurate than Cr for renal disease) Normal: mg/dL Critical: > 100 mg/dL ↑: prerenal causes, renal causes, postrenal azotemia ↓: liver failure, overhydration because of SIADH, neg nitrogen balance, pregnancy, nephrotic syndrome
Measures serum sodium level Major cation in EC space Balance between dietary intake and renal excretion Normal: 136 – 146 mEq/L Critical: 160 mEq/L ↑ (hypernatremia): ↑ Na + intake, ↓ Na + loss, Excessive free body H 2 O loss ↓ (hyponatremia): ↓ Na + intake, ↑ Na + loss, ↑ free body H 2 O
Measures serum potassium level Major cation within cell Normal: 3.4 – 5.2 mEq/L Critical: 6.5 mEq/L ↑ (hyperkalemia): excessive intake, acidosis, acute/chronic renal failure, Addison disease, hypoaldosteronism, infection, dehydration ↓ (hypokalemia): deficient intake, burns, hyperaldosteronism, Cushing syndrome, RTA, licorice ingestion, alkalosis, renal artery stenosis
Measures CO 2 content of blood Major role in acid-base balance Regulated by kidneys Used to evaluate pt pH status & electrolytes Normal: 22 – 32 mEq/L Critical: < 6 mEq/L ↑: severe vomiting, high- volume gastric suction, aldosteronism, mercurial diuretic use, COPD, metabolic alkalosis ↓: chronic diarrhea, chronic loop diuretic use, renal failure, DKA, starvation, metabolic acidosis, shock
Measures serum calcium level Direct measurement Used to evaluate parathyroid function & Ca metabolism Used to monitor renal failure, renal transplantation, hyperparathyroidism, various malignancies, & Ca level when giving large-volume blood transfusions Normal: Total = 8.3 – 10.3 mg/dL, Ionized = 4.5 – 5.6 mg/dL Critical: Total 13 mg/dL, Ionized 7 mg/dL ↑ (hypercalcemia): hyperparathyroidism, bone mets, Paget disease of bone, prolonged immobilization, milk-alkali syndrome, vit D intoxication, hyperthyroidism ↓ (hypocalcemia): hypoparathyroidism, renal failure, rickets, vit D deficiency, osteomalacia, pancreatitis, alkalosis, malabsorption, fat embolism
Measures total protein in blood Combination of prealbumin, albumin & globulins Normal: 6.4 – 8.3 g/dL
Provides information about kidneys & other metabolic processes Used for diagnosis, screening & monitoring Frequently used to test for urinary tract infections (UTIs)
Appearance: clear Color: amber yellow Odor: aromatic pH: 4.6 – 8 Protein: 0 – 8 mg/dL Nitrites: none Ketones: none
Crystals: none Glucose: negative White Blood Cells: 0 – 4/low-power field WBC casts: none Red Blood Cells (RBCs): ≤ 2 RBC casts: none
Examples: β- hydroxybutyric acid, acetoacetic acid, acetone Associated with poorly controlled diabetes Used to evaluate ketoacidosis associated w/ alcoholism, fasting, starvation, high-protein diets, isopropanol ingestion
Screen for UTI (dipstick method) Test based on chemical rxn by bacterial reductase (reduces nitrate to nitrite) 50% accurate
Collected via lumbar puncture (LP) Useful for the diagnosis metastatic brain/spinal cord neoplasm, cerebral hemorrhage, meningitis, encephalitis, degenerative brain disease, autoimmune diseases w/ CNS involvement, neurosyphilis, demyelinating diseases
Opening pressure: <20 cm H 2 O Color: clear & colorless Blood: none RBCs: 0 WBCs: 0 – 5 cells/μL Neutrophils: 0 – 6% Lymphocytes: 40 – 80% Monocytes: 15 – 45%
Protein: 15 – 45 mg/dL Glucose: 50 – 75 mg/dL or 60 – 70% of blood glucose level
Causes of ↑ lymphs/plasma cells: viral, tubercular, fungal or syphilitic meningitis; multiple sclerosis (MS), Guillain-Barré syndrome