BBL 3103 LITERARY THEORY FROM PLATO TO T. S. ELIOT DR. IDA BAIZURA BAHAR

T HE R ENAISSANCE 01 T HE D ARK /M IDDLE A GES OR THE M EDIEVAL E RA medieval scholar making precise measurements in a 14th-century manuscript illustration

T HE D ARK /M IDDLE A GES OR THE M EDIEVAL E RA i. About The break up of the Roman empire (ca. 5th century) brought about the Dark Ages The rise of barbarian hordes Surge of nationalism Literary/cultural activity, specifically Graeco-Roman culture was neglected Culture of war Fusion of church and state in full swing Rise of Christianity > Graeco-Roman culture was seen as pagan Literary criticism activity focused on biblical exegesis (interpretation) Dante: > ushered in the resurrection of Graeco-Roman culture by including its mythology in his Divine Comedy > ushered in the use of vernacular (Florentian Italian instead of Latin)

02 T HE R ENAISSANCE i. About With the fall of Constantinople (1453), the Renaissance was ushered in Greek scholars moved and settled further West (esp. Italy) bringing with them texts of antiquity Translations of Aristotle and Horace Invention of the printing press > social effect: culture for the masses > it was considered desirable once again to be a man of learning Revival of Graeco-Roman culture > More importantly, revival of Graeco-Roman modes of thought (inquiry, appreciation of beauty) The translation of Graeco-Roman texts into vernacular languages Italy became a cultural hub, dominated the Renaissance outlook

02 T HE R ENAISSANCE ii. Chief Concerns of the Age Literary genres (Aristotle, Plato) Decorum and rules (Horace, Aristotle) Classic vs English metres Imaginative literature vs classical literature or vs moralists

02 T HE R ENAISSANCE iii. The 4 stages, Italian influence 1. The Rhetorical Phase Form and style of literature were studied Paradoxically, the rhetorical trend was inspired by the Italians, although they were the pioneers of the Romantic trend 2. Classification of poetic forms Classical systems of prose and verse forms were classified systematically Classical metre introduced into England (from Italy), and then into English poetry 3. Philosophical and apologetic criticism Sir Philip Sidney’s Defence of Poetry English poetry attacked by: > Moralists, who felt that poetry was immoral > Classicists, who disliked English verse forms Study of ancient verse, to grasp the fundamental principles of the art 4. Classicism Ben Jonson More emphasis on rules and dogma, with relation to the creative process

03 S IR P HILIP S IDNEY ( )

I. D EFENCE OF P OETRY Written in reply to Stephen Gosson’s School of Abuse Gosson said: > poets are mere ‘jesters’ and enemies of virtue > music is debilitating and undermines virtue > drama is an incitement to popular debauchery (def. indulgence in wild sensual pleasures) > Plato himself banished poets from his ideal state > tragedy was filled with acts of cruelty and comedy with vulgar love affairs

II. T HE REPLY The Defence of Poetry has 5 main counterarguments: 1. The antiquity and universality of poetry Poetry precedes all other branches of learning Philosophers and historians arise out of poets 2. Kinds of poetry, its nature and its usefulness Religious: to sing the praises of god Philosophical: imparts knowledge True: the actual ‘makers’; epic poets; inspires men to action

II. T HE REPLY 3. The author’s reply to his critics ‘Poetry is useless and a waste of time’ > poetry is conducive to virtue > poetry is therefore superior to history and philosophy ‘Poets are liars' > the poet doesn’t make any claims for truth, thus he never lies > instead he represents an imaginative reality, what should be instead of what is ‘Poetry inclines one towards contemplation, and disinclines one from action’ > All knowledge is contemplative, and with this rationale, all books should be banned > Poetry has inspired men for ages, especially in times of war ‘Plato himself banished poets from his ideal state’ > Plato, according to Sidney, was more concerned with the abuse of poetry > Plato, a poet himself, regarded the true poet as being divinely inspired

II. T HE REPLY 4. The state of contemporary English drama Sidney felt that contemporary English drama was lacking > an era of peace in England, therefore poets had become sluggish > an absence of true geniuses > ignorance of the poetic art (antiquity) Doggedly emphasised the three unities (time, place, action) Sidney did not approve of tragicomedy as a genre; the mingling of two separate elements caused a rupture in unity Disapproved of the evil and vulgar being presented in comedy Contemporary love-poetry was degenerate; its ornate style was not suited to its content

II. T HE REPLY 5. Remarks on style, diction and versification Sidney believed that English was a far superior language to other continental languages Disapproved of flamboyant displays of wordplay; ‘true art lies in concealing art’ A proponent of the introduction of classical metre into English verse