Argument “The end of argument or discussion should be, not victory, but enlightenment.” --Joseph Joubert

Argument “Everything we say or do presents some kind of argument, takes some kind of position” (82). “Everything we say or do presents some kind of argument, takes some kind of position” (82). “A genre of writing that uses reasons and evidence to support a claim or position and, sometimes, to persuade an audience to accept that position” (489). “A genre of writing that uses reasons and evidence to support a claim or position and, sometimes, to persuade an audience to accept that position” (489).

Key Features A clear and arguable position—a position must be arguable and have at least two sides or points of view. You must argue something that is plausible, reasonable, supportable, and worthy of being taken seriously. A clear and arguable position—a position must be arguable and have at least two sides or points of view. You must argue something that is plausible, reasonable, supportable, and worthy of being taken seriously.

Key Features Necessary background information— sometimes there is additional information that must be presented so the reader can fully understand the argument Necessary background information— sometimes there is additional information that must be presented so the reader can fully understand the argument Good reasons—a position itself cannot make an argument; the argument comes from the reasons provided to back up the argument Good reasons—a position itself cannot make an argument; the argument comes from the reasons provided to back up the argument

Key Features Convincing support—in order for your argument to be fully understood, you must provide support for your reasons. Support can include: facts, statistics, expert testimony, anecdotal evidence, case studies, textual evidence, etc. Convincing support—in order for your argument to be fully understood, you must provide support for your reasons. Support can include: facts, statistics, expert testimony, anecdotal evidence, case studies, textual evidence, etc.

Key Features Appeals to the readers values—appeals try to reach the reader on three possible levels. Appeals to the readers values—appeals try to reach the reader on three possible levels. Emotional appeal—soliciting (playing to) emotions in people using such emotions as fear, rage, hope, vanity, etc. Emotional appeal—soliciting (playing to) emotions in people using such emotions as fear, rage, hope, vanity, etc. Logical appeal—establishing truths, opinions from experts, expert testimony, primary sources, statistics, personal experiences, etc. Logical appeal—establishing truths, opinions from experts, expert testimony, primary sources, statistics, personal experiences, etc. Ethical appeal—this is the image portrayed of the writer; the writer sounds fair minded, pleasant, objective, etc. Ethical appeal—this is the image portrayed of the writer; the writer sounds fair minded, pleasant, objective, etc.

Key Features A trustworthy tone—the perception the audience has of the writer (or presenter); it is how we sound to the audience. You win the audience by sounding like you know what you are talking about. A trustworthy tone—the perception the audience has of the writer (or presenter); it is how we sound to the audience. You win the audience by sounding like you know what you are talking about.

Key Features Careful consideration of other positions—there will always be people who disagree with your position. We need to consider those positions and acknowledge those views and opinions, and if possible refute them in our own arguments. Careful consideration of other positions—there will always be people who disagree with your position. We need to consider those positions and acknowledge those views and opinions, and if possible refute them in our own arguments. Considering others’ views gives the writer credibility by making the audience believe that the writer has considered all possible “parts” to the argument and fully understands the issue. Considering others’ views gives the writer credibility by making the audience believe that the writer has considered all possible “parts” to the argument and fully understands the issue.

Choosing a Topic Pick a topic: Of interest to you Of interest to you That you aren’t too close to That you aren’t too close to That is focused, but not too narrow That is focused, but not too narrow That you have a personal connection to That you have a personal connection to

Choosing a Topic Think about roles you play such as: personal, family, school, work, public, etc. Think about roles you play such as: personal, family, school, work, public, etc. Make sure the argument covers only one issue Make sure the argument covers only one issue

Proof Thesis—a claim or statement of the writer’s position or main point Thesis—a claim or statement of the writer’s position or main point Qualify your thesis: Qualify your thesis: Can it be true in some cases? Can it be true in some cases? Can it be true at some times? Can it be true at some times? Can it be true for some groups or people? Can it be true for some groups or people? Can it be true under certain circumstances? Can it be true under certain circumstances?

Proof Come up with good reasons? Come up with good reasons? Why is this true? Why is this true? How can we prove it? How can we prove it? Develop support: Develop support: Facts Facts Statistics Statistics Scenarios Scenarios Expert testimony Expert testimony Textual evidence Textual evidence Case studies or observations Case studies or observations Anecdotal evidence Anecdotal evidence

Acknowledging Other Positions Remember that this goes to your credibility. It appears that you have done the research fully. Remember that this goes to your credibility. It appears that you have done the research fully. Acknowledge others by: Acknowledge others by: Conceding doubts, concerns, objections, etc. Conceding doubts, concerns, objections, etc. Refute other positions Refute other positions Is their reasoning flawed? Is their reasoning flawed? Is their evidence inadequate? Is their evidence inadequate? Are there short comings? Are there short comings? Watch for fallacies Watch for fallacies

Writing a Draft Beginnings—are important to attract our readers and tell them what is to come. Here is how: Beginnings—are important to attract our readers and tell them what is to come. Here is how: Offer background information Offer background information Define key terms Define key terms Get the readers’ attention Get the readers’ attention Explain the context for your position Explain the context for your position State your thesis State your thesis Forecast your organization Forecast your organization Ask a question Ask a question Give a quote Give a quote Connect your subject to the readers’ interests Connect your subject to the readers’ interests

Writing a Draft Ending—these are the last words the reader will read, so you want them to remember your piece. Here is how: Ending—these are the last words the reader will read, so you want them to remember your piece. Here is how: Restate your main points Restate your main points Discuss the implications of your argument Discuss the implications of your argument Refer to the beginning Refer to the beginning Propose an action Propose an action Give a quote Give a quote Ask a rhetorical question Ask a rhetorical question

Think About Design How will the textual layout influence the reader? Look at: How will the textual layout influence the reader? Look at: Typeface Typeface Headings Headings Lists Lists Graphs Graphs Illustrations Illustrations White Space White Space

Revising Is there sufficient background or contextual information? Is there sufficient background or contextual information? Is there a clear thesis? Is there a clear thesis? Are the reasons plausible? Are the reasons plausible? Is there enough support? Is there enough support? Are the sources appropriate? Are the sources appropriate? Do you have enough sources? Do you have enough sources? Are they credible? Are they credible? Can readers follow your line of reasoning? Can readers follow your line of reasoning? Have you considered potential objections? Have you considered potential objections? Are the sources documented fully and carefully? Are the sources documented fully and carefully?

Looking at Your Work What did you do well? What did you do well? What could be improved? What could be improved? How did you go about researching this topic? How did you go about researching this topic? How did others respond to your work? How did others respond to your work? How did you go about drafting your piece? How did you go about drafting your piece? Did you do graphic elements? Did you do graphic elements? Did they help? Did they help? What would you do differently next time? What would you do differently next time? What have you learned about your writing ability? What have you learned about your writing ability? What do you need to work on for future writings? What do you need to work on for future writings?