Introducing Psychology and Research Methods Chapter 1 Introducing Psychology and Research Methods

Module 1.1: Learning Objectives The Science of Psychology Describe reasons for studying psychology and why it is considered both a science and a profession Define psychology and behavior, differentiating between overt and covert behaviors Describe how the search for empirical evidence sets psychology apart from “common-sense” beliefs and from other fields of study Define the terms data, scientific observation, and research method Explain why some topics in psychology are difficult to study The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module: Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology- Students will understand and apply basic research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues

Module 1.1: Learning Objectives The Science of Psychology (Continued) Describe each of the following research specialties in psychology: developmental, learning, personality, sensation and perception, comparative, biopsychology, cognitive, gender, social, cultural, evolutionary, and forensic Explain why and how animals are used in research, defining the term animal model and listing ways in which psychological research may benefit animals Explain the four goals of psychology

What Is Psychology? Psychology Psyche: Mind Logos: Knowledge or study Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes Behavior: Overt; i. e. , can be directly observed (crying) Mental Processes: Covert; i. e. , cannot be directly observed (remembering)

Empiricism: The Goals To measure and describe behaviors To gather empirical evidence: information gained from direct observation and measurement To gather data: Observed facts To use scientific observation: Empirical investigation that is structured so that it answers questions about the world

FIGURE 1.1. Results of an empirical study The graph shows that aggravated assaults in Los Angeles become more likely as air temperature increases This suggests that physical discomfort is associated with interpersonal hostility (Data from Simister & Cooper, 2005 ).

What Topics Do Psychologists Research? Development: Course of human growth and development Learning: How and why it occurs in humans and animals Personality: Traits, motivations, and individual differences

What Topics Do Psychologists Research? (Continued) Sensation and Perception: How we come to know the world through our five senses Comparative Psychology: Behavior of different species Biopsychology: How behavior is related to biological processes, especially activities in the nervous system

What Might a Psychologist Research? (Continued) Cognition: How people think Gender: Study differences between males and females and how they develop Social Psychology: Human social behavior

What Might a Psychologist Research? (Continued) Cultural Psychology : How culture affects human behavior Evolution: How our behavior is guided by patterns that evolved Forensics: How to apply psychological principles to legal issues

What Are the Goals of Psychology? Description of Behaviors: Naming and classifying various observable, measurable behaviors Understanding: The causes of behavior Prediction: Forecasting behavior accurately Control: Altering conditions that affect behaviors

Module 1.2: Learning Objectives Critical Thinking and the Scientific Method in Psychology Define the term critical thinking Describe the four basic principles which form the foundation of critical thinking Define pseudo-psychology Explain how it differs from psychology Describe the pseudo-psychologies of palmistry, phrenology, graphology, and astrology The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module: Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline Goal 9: Personal Development- Students will develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement

Module 1.2: Learning Objectives Critical Thinking and the Scientific Method in Psychology (Continued) Explain why they continue to thrive even though they have no scientific basis Explain the problem with using common-sense as a source of information List and define the six steps of the scientific method Define the terms hypothesis, operational definition, and theory Explain the importance of publishing List and describe the parts of a research report

Critical Thinking Ability to analyze, evaluate, critique, and synthesize information What would you expect to see if the claim were true? Gather evidence relevant to the claim Evaluate the evidence Draw a conclusion Oftentimes used in research

Four Basic Principles of Critical Thinking Few truths transcend the need for empirical testing Judging the quality of evidence is crucial Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically make an idea true Critical thinking requires an open mind

Pseudopsychologies Pseudo means “false”; any unfounded “system” that resembles psychology and is NOT based on scientific testing Phrenology: Personality traits revealed by shape of skull and bumps on your head Palmistry: Lines on your hands (palms) predict future and reveal personality

Pseudopsychologies (Continued) Graphology: Personality revealed by your handwriting Astrology: The positions of the stars and planets at birth determine your personality and affect your behavior

More on Pseudopsychologies Uncritical Acceptance: Tendency to believe positive or unflattering descriptions of yourself Fallacy of Positive Instances: When we remember or notice things that confirm our expectations and forget the rest

The Barnum Effect Barnum Effect: Tendency to consider personal descriptions accurate if stated in general terms Always have a little something for everyone; make sure all palm readings, horoscopes, etc. are so general that something in them will always apply to any one person! E. g. , Miss Cleo

Proposing a hypothesis Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis The Scientific Method Six Basic Elements Making observations Defining a problem Operational definitions Proposing a hypothesis An educated guess that can be tested Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis 5 Publishing results 6 Building a theory

Scientific Theory A system of ideas that interrelates facts and concepts, summarizes existing data, and predicts future observations A good theory must be falsifiable i .e. , operationally defined so that it can be disconfirmed

FIGURE 1.2. Operational definitions are used to link concepts with concrete observations Do you think the examples given are reasonable operational definitions of frustration and aggression? Operational definitions vary in how well they represent concepts For this reason, many different experiments may be necessary to draw clear conclusions about hypothesized relationships in psychology

FIGURE 1.3 Psychologists use the logic of science to answer questions about behavior Specific hypotheses can be tested in a variety of ways, including naturalistic observation, correlational studies, controlled experiments, clinical studies, and the survey method Psychologists revise their theories to reflect the evidence they gather New or revised theories then lead to new observations, problems, and hypotheses

Module 1.3: Learning Objectives History and Contemporary Perspectives For each of these schools of psychology—structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, psychoanalytic, and humanism—answer each of the following questions: its founder, reasons it was founded, its goal or main focus, and its impact on modern psychology and/or possible use in psychotherapy Identify notable events within the history of psychology Describe the contribution of women to the early history of psychology and their representation in the field then and now Explain the contemporary perspectives in psychology, including the concepts of eclectic, positive psychology, cultural diversity, cultural relativity, and social norms The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module: Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline Goal 8: Sociocultural and International Awareness- Students will recognize, understand, and respect the complexity of sociocultural and international diversity Goal 9: Personal Development- Students will develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement

History of Psychology: Beginnings 1879: Wundt set up first lab to study conscious experience in Germany Systematically observed and measured various stimuli Introspection: Looking inward (i.e., examining and reporting your thoughts, feelings, etc. )

History of Psychology: Structuralism Wundt’s ideas brought to the US by Tichener and renamed Structuralism Structuralism: School of thought concerned with analyzing sensations and personal experience into basic elements

History of Psychology: Functionalism William James (American) wrote Principles of Psychology (1890) Functionalism: How the mind functions to adapt us to our environment Functionalists admired Darwin and his theory of natural selection Animals keep features through evolution that help them adapt to environments

Functionalism’s Effects on Modern Psychology Animals brought into the study of psychology Educational Psychology: Study of learning, teaching, classroom dynamics, and related topics Industrial Psychology: Study of people at work

History of Psychology: Behaviorism Psychology must study observable behavior objectively John B. Watson studied relationship between stimuli and responses Little Albert B.F. Skinner studied animals almost exclusively Believed actions controlled by punishments and rewards

History of Psychology: Cognitive Behaviorism View that combines cognition and conditioning to explain behavior Cognitive Behaviorists: Ellis and Bandura Our thoughts influence our behaviors Used often in treatment of depression

History of Psychology: Gestalt Gestalt Psychology: “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts ” Studied thinking, learning, and perception in whole units, not by analyzing experiences into parts Influenced study of perception and personality Key names: Wertheimer, Perls

FIGURE 1.4 The design you see here is entirely made up of broken circles However, as the Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions have a powerful tendency to form meaningful patterns Because of this tendency, you will probably see a triangle in this design, even though it is only an illusion Your whole perceptual experience exceeds the sum of its parts

History of Psychology: Freud Psychoanalytic Perspective Our behavior is largely influenced by our unconscious wishes, thoughts, and desires, especially sex and aggression Freud among first to appreciate that childhood affects adult personality Freud created psychoanalysis

Repression Repression: When memories, thoughts, or impulses are unconsciously held out of awareness Recent research has hypothesized that our unconscious mind is partially responsible for our behaviors

History of Psychology: Neo-Freudians New or recent—some of Freud’s students who broke away to promote their own theories Less emphasis on sex and aggression Key Names: Alfred Adler, Anna Freud (Freud’s daughter), Karen Horney, Carl Jung, Otto Rank, Erik Erikson

History of Psychology: Humanism Key Names: Rogers and Maslow Goal of psychology is to study unique aspects of the person Focuses on human experience, problems, potentials, and ideals Each person has innate goodness and is able to make free choices (contrast with Skinner and Freud)

Terms Self-Image: Perception of our own body, personality, and capabilities Self-Evaluation: Positive or negative feelings held toward one’s self Frame of Reference: Mental perspective used to interpret events Self-Actualization: Ongoing process of fully developing one’s personal potential

Women in Psychology’s Early Days Mary Calkins: Research on memory 1st woman president of American Psychological Association Christine Ladd-Franklin: Research on color vision Margaret Washburn: Published The Animal Mind (1908)

Psychology Today Biopsychological Perspective: All of our behavior can be explained through physiological processes Study the brain and nervous system Psychological Perspective: Behavior is shaped by individual psychological processes Includes behaviorism, cognitive behaviorism, cognition, humanism, and psychoanalysis

Psychology Today (Continued) Sociocultural Perspective: Behavior affected by social and cultural contexts Cultural relativity: Behavior must be judged relative to values of the culture in which it occurs Social norms: Rules that define acceptable and expected behavior

Positive Psychology Study of human strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior Looks at positive side of human behavior such as love, creativity, well-being, and optimal behavior

Module 1.4: Learning Objectives Psychologists and Their Specialties Characterize the differences in training, emphasis, and sources of employment among psychologists, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, counselors, and psychiatric social workers Explain how the media often portrays psychologists Discuss psychology as a career option, including the various specialties, such as clinical and counseling psychology, the “scientist-practitioner” model, the APA code of ethics, and the types of research (applied or basic) performed The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module: Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues Goal 9: Personal Development- Students will develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement Goal 10: Career Planning and Development- Students will emerge from the major with realistic ideas about how to implement their psychological knowledge, skills, and values in occupational pursuits on a variety of settings

Many Flavors of Psychologists Usually have master’s degree or doctorate Trained in methods, knowledge, and theories of psychology Clinical Psychologist: Treats psychological problems or does research on therapies and mental disorders Counseling Psychologist: Treats milder emotional and behavioral disturbances

More Helping Professionals Psychiatrists: A medical doctor (M.D.) Usually use medications to treat problems Generally do not have extensive training in providing “talk” therapy Psychoanalysts: Receive additional training post-Ph.D. or M.D. at an institute for psychoanalysis

Some More Helping Professionals Counselor: Advisor who helps solve problems with marriage, school, and so on Requires master’s degree Psychiatric Social Workers: Many have masters degrees and perform psychotherapy Presently a very popular profession Not all psychologists perform therapy!

FIGURE 1.5 (a) Specialties in psychology (APA, 2005) Percentages are approximate (b) Where psychologists work (APA, 2000) (c) This chart shows the main activities psychologists engage in at work (APA, 2000) Any particular psychologist might do several of these activities during a work week As you can see, most psychologists specialize in applied areas and work in applied settings

Module 1.5: Learning Objectives The Psychology Experiment List and describe the three essential variables of the experimental method Explain the nature and purpose of the control group and the experimental group in an experiment as well as the purpose of randomly assigning subjects to these two groups Describe three areas of ethical concern in behavioral research List the basic ethical guidelines for psychological researchers Describe what a placebo is and why it is used in an experiment Explain how the single-blind and double-blind experimental approaches control for the placebo effect and the experimenter effect, respectively Discuss the self-fulfilling prophecy The primary Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module: Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology- Students will understand and apply basic research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline

Experiments To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experiments Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except the condition you are varying Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior

Variables Independent Variable: Condition(s) altered by the experimenter; experimenter sets their size, amount, or value; these are suspected causes for behavioral differences Dependent Variable: Demonstrates effects that independent variables have on behavior Extraneous Variables: Conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment (e.g., number of hours slept before the experiment)

Groups Experimental Group: The group of participants that gets the independent variable Control Group: The group of participants that does NOT get the independent variable Random Assignment: Participant has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group

FIGURE 1.6 Elements of a simple psychological experiment to assess the effects of music during study on test scores

Placebo Placebo: A fake pill (sugar), injection (saline), or condition Placebos alter our expectations about our own emotional and physical reactions Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that result from expectations that a drug or other treatment will have some effect These expectancies then influence bodily activities

Experiment Types Single Blind: Only the subjects have no idea whether they get real treatment or placebo Double Blind: The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects get real treatment or placebo Best type of experiment if properly set up

Experimenter Effects Changes in behavior caused by the unintended influence of the experimenter Robert Rosenthal (1973) Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come true

Does Marijuana Impair Memory? PLAY VIDEO

Module 1.6: Learning Objectives Non-Experimental Research Methods Explain the use of non-experimental methods of research Describe naturalistic observation and its advantages and limitations, including the concepts of observer effect, observer bias, and anthropomorphic error Define the term observation record Describe a correlational study, its advantages and limitations, how a correlation coefficient is expressed and what it means, and why correlation does NOT demonstrate causation Briefly describe the clinical method of research, or case study method, including when it is used and its advantages and limitations Briefly describe the use of the survey method, including its advantages and limitations and the new use of Internet surveys Define the terms population, representative sample, random selection, biased sample, and courtesy bias The Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module: Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology Goal 2: Research Methods in Psychology- Students will understand and apply basic research methods in psychology, including research design, data analysis, and interpretation Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline

Naturalistic Observation Observing a person or an animal in the natural environmental context Provides descriptions of behavior e.g., Jane Goodall

Naturalistic Observation Problems Observer Effect: Changes in behavior caused by an awareness of being observed Observer Bias: Occurs when observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details

Anthropomorphic Error Attributing human thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals, especially as a way of explaining their behavior e.g., “Java, my dog, is acting like that because he’s feeling depressed today.”

Correlational Studies Determine the degree of a relationship between two events, measures, or variables Correlation Coefficient: Statistic ranging from –1.00 to +1.00; the sign indicates the direction of the relationship Closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to +1.00, the stronger the relationship Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship between the variables

Correlations (Continued) Positive Correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by increases in the other variable e.g. high school grades and college grades Negative Correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by decreases in the other variable e.g. hours playing video games and grades Correlation does not demonstrate causation: Just because two variables are related does NOT mean that one variable causes the other to occur

FIGURE 1.9 The correlation coefficient tells how strongly two measures are related These graphs show a range of relationships between two measures, A and B If a correlation is negative, increases in one measure are associated with decreases in the other (As B gets larger, A gets smaller ) In a positive correlation, increases in one measure are associated with increases in the other (As B gets larger, A gets larger ) The center-left graph (“medium negative relationship”) might result from comparing anxiety level (B) with test scores (A): Higher anxiety is associated with lower scores The center graph (“no relationship”) would result from plotting a person’s shoe size (B) and his or her IQ (A) The center-right graph (“medium positive relationship”) could be a plot of grades in high school (B) and grades in college (A) for a group of students: Higher grades in high school are associated with higher grades in college

The Clinical Method Case Study: In-depth focus of all aspects of a single person Natural Clinical Tests: Natural events, such as accidents, that provide psychological data

FIGURE 1.10 Some of the earliest information on the effects of damage to frontal areas of the brain came from a case study of the accidental injury of Phineas Gage

Survey Method Using public polling techniques to answer psychological questions People in a representative sample are asked carefully worded questions Representative Sample: Small group that accurately reflects a larger population Population: Entire group of animals or people belonging to a particular category (e.g., all married women)

Some Problems Internet Surveys: Web based research Low cost and can reach many people Samples are not representative Courtesy Bias: Problem in research A tendency to give “polite” or socially desirable answers

Module 1.7: Learning Objectives Psychology in Action: Psychology in the Media List the suggestions from the textbook authors that will help you become a more critical reader of psychological information in the popular press The Goals outlined in the APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate Major which are met in this module: Goal 1: Knowledge Base of Psychology- Students will demonstrate familiarity with the major concepts, theoretical perspectives, empirical findings, and historical trends in psychology Goal 3: Critical Thinking Skills in Psychology- Students will respect and use critical and creative thinking, skeptical inquiry, and, when possible, the scientific approach to solve problems related to behavior and mental processes Goal 4: Application of Psychology- Students will understand and apply psychological principles to personal, social, and organizational issues Goal 5: Values in Psychology- Students will be able to weigh evidence, tolerate ambiguity, act ethically, and reflect other values that are the underpinnings of psychology as a discipline Goal 9: Personal Development- Students will develop insight into their own and others’ behavior and mental processes and apply effective strategies for self-management and self-improvement

Separating Fact from Fiction Be skeptical Consider the source of information Ask yourself, “Was there a control group?” Look for errors in distinguishing between correlation and causation

Separating Fact from Fiction (Continued) Be sure to distinguish between observation and inference (e.g., Robert is crying, but do we know why he is crying?) Beware of oversimplifications, especially those motivated by monetary gain Remember, “for example” is no proof!