First-Wave Feminism Has its foundation in the Enlightenment doctrine of human rights, esp. as expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) Has its foundation in the Enlightenment doctrine of human rights, esp. as expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) Political in focus: works for political equality in areas such as voting, ownership of property, inheritance, education and ability to run for public office Political in focus: works for political equality in areas such as voting, ownership of property, inheritance, education and ability to run for public office

Mary Wollstonecraft ( ) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) Followed up her earlier book, A Vindication of the Rights of Man Followed up her earlier book, A Vindication of the Rights of Man Focused on the moral demand of equality, especially in education Focused on the moral demand of equality, especially in education First attribution of gender differences to socialization First attribution of gender differences to socialization

John Stuart Mill ( ) The Subjection of Women (1869) Focused on establishing a right to vote and to hold political office Focused on establishing a right to vote and to hold political office Much of the book was dedicated to undermining popular stereotypes of women that were used to justify political exclusion Much of the book was dedicated to undermining popular stereotypes of women that were used to justify political exclusion

John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor ( ) The Enfranchisement of Women (1851) Originally written by Taylor, later republished with essays written by her and Mill Originally written by Taylor, later republished with essays written by her and Mill Also focused on arguing for political enfranchisement for women Also focused on arguing for political enfranchisement for women Added essays in later additions argued for women’s right to sue for divorce Added essays in later additions argued for women’s right to sue for divorce

Second-Wave Feminism Had its foundation in phenomenology (and for some psychoanalysis) Had its foundation in phenomenology (and for some psychoanalysis) Picks up from First-Wave Feminism’s critique of gender differences Picks up from First-Wave Feminism’s critique of gender differences Primarily theoretically focused Primarily theoretically focused Aims at identifying and eliminating sources of sexism and gender oppression Aims at identifying and eliminating sources of sexism and gender oppression

Simone de Beauvoir ( ) The Second Sex (1949) Denies that gender differences are based in biology Denies that gender differences are based in biology Developed the sex/gender distinction Developed the sex/gender distinction Recognizes ‘femininity’ and ‘masculinity’ as historically variable Recognizes ‘femininity’ and ‘masculinity’ as historically variable

Betty Friedan ( ) The Feminine Mystique (1963) “The Problem That Has No Name”: unhappiness despite gains of the women’s rights movement “The Problem That Has No Name”: unhappiness despite gains of the women’s rights movement Argues that traditional gender roles stifle women’s development Argues that traditional gender roles stifle women’s development Treats gender roles as inherently dehumanizing Treats gender roles as inherently dehumanizing

Carol Gilligan (1936-) In a Different Voice (1982) Was a student of developmental psychologist Larry Kohlberg, who found gender differences in approaches to morality Was a student of developmental psychologist Larry Kohlberg, who found gender differences in approaches to morality Argues that these differences are the result of socialization, not inherent reasoning differences Argues that these differences are the result of socialization, not inherent reasoning differences Contends that neither men’s nor women’s approaches to ethics is superior; rather, both are needed for a whole moral person Contends that neither men’s nor women’s approaches to ethics is superior; rather, both are needed for a whole moral person

Naomi Wolf (1962-) The Beauty Myth (1991) Examines the ways in which beauty standards are used to both discriminate against and physically harm women Examines the ways in which beauty standards are used to both discriminate against and physically harm women Focuses on the way in which gender norms for women create double- binds—situations where both meeting and failing to meet the norm become harmful. Focuses on the way in which gender norms for women create double- binds—situations where both meeting and failing to meet the norm become harmful.

Third-Wave Feminism Often influenced by postmodernism and critical theory Often influenced by postmodernism and critical theory Extends Second-Wave Feminism’s critique of gender norms by rejecting dichotomous and hierarchical thinking Extends Second-Wave Feminism’s critique of gender norms by rejecting dichotomous and hierarchical thinking Typically seeks to destabilize the very notions of gender and sex Typically seeks to destabilize the very notions of gender and sex Examines both the variability within categories (such as ‘woman’) and the complex ways in which those categories interact [intersectionality] Examines both the variability within categories (such as ‘woman’) and the complex ways in which those categories interact [intersectionality]

Angela Y. Davis (1944-) Women, Race, and Class (1981) Inaugurated the third wave emphasis on intersectionality by examining how race and class biases negatively affected the feminist movement Inaugurated the third wave emphasis on intersectionality by examining how race and class biases negatively affected the feminist movement

bell hooks (1952-) Ain’t I a Woman (1981) Called attention to the way in which feminist writings have mainly reflected the needs and interests of white middle-class women Called attention to the way in which feminist writings have mainly reflected the needs and interests of white middle-class women Inaugurated a greater recognition of and response to diversity by feminist thinkers Inaugurated a greater recognition of and response to diversity by feminist thinkers

Luce Irigaray (1932-) This Sex Which Is Not One (1977) Emphasizes the ambiguous and variable nature of ‘womanhood’ and ‘femininity’ Emphasizes the ambiguous and variable nature of ‘womanhood’ and ‘femininity’ Claims that to conceive of ‘woman’ or ‘the feminine’ at all is to engage in an inherently sexist approach to understanding gender Claims that to conceive of ‘woman’ or ‘the feminine’ at all is to engage in an inherently sexist approach to understanding gender

Judith Butler (1956-) Gender Trouble (1989) Argues that “gender” is a performance, and is thus indefinitely variable Argues that “gender” is a performance, and is thus indefinitely variable Key work in the development of queer theory as well Key work in the development of queer theory as well Links gender norms to language—language both creates and reinforces gender norms Links gender norms to language—language both creates and reinforces gender norms