Durian Durian – prized fruit grown in SE Asian tropical forests. Football sized fruit Tree life cycle depends on nectar- and pollen-feeding flying foxes (bats) Mutualism – bats pollinate flowers and get food (nectar and pollen) from flowers. Many flying fox species are endangered, partially because of deforestation, hunting (bat meat and because they are seen as pests) Keystone species – flying foxes are keystone species in tropical forest ecosystem – 1) pollinators, 2) spread seeds in droppings, 3) other species depend on them (food). 80-100% of seeds on ground are deposited by flying foxes. They are also important to 1) fruits like bananas, 2) other foods, 3) medicine, 4) timber (ebony and mahogany), , 5) fiber, 6) dyes, 7) animal fodder, 8) fuel Niches = its role in community – pollinator, seed disperser, prey Flying fox

Smells Like Hell, Taste Like Heaven? – YouTube Bizarre Foods (Asia) [part 6] LAST PART – YouTube ANGRY BOB CONQUERS THE DURIAN FRUIT – YouTube

FRUIT BAT – YouTube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FK9tWT5pA4 Flying fox bat fighting a Python – YouTube http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&v=l7K5dhiuYT4&feature=endscreen

Keystone Species in Tropical Forests What is the niche of the flying fox? Mutualism What happens if the flying fox becomes extinct?

Key Concepts Community structure Roles of species Species interactions Changes in ecosystems Stability of ecosystems

Biodiversity Can be changed by three things: Latitude Depth Pollution

1. Latitude Species Diversity 1,000 100 10 Latitude 80ºN 60 40 20 200 200 90ºN 30 30ºS 1. Latitude Where is the world’s diversity found? Most species rich environments – 1) tropical forests, 2) coral reefs, 3) deep ocean, 4) large tropical lakes. Latitude (animation) – diversity decreases with increasing latitude (see ant and bird figures – click on green arrow). Highest at equator Depth – decreases with increasing depth Fig. 7-3 p. 142

http://www. micro. utexas. edu/courses/levin/bio304/ecosystems/ecology http://www.micro.utexas.edu/courses/levin/bio304/ecosystems/ecology.html http://www.micro.utexas.edu/courses/levin/bio304/ecosystems/ecology.html

Depth – diversity decreases with increasing ocean water depth Coral reefs Coastal areas Open oceans Deep ocean Hydrothermal vents

3. Pollution - Changes in Diversity and Abundance of Diatom Species Number of individuals per diatom species Number of diatom species Unpolluted stream Polluted pollution – diversity decreases with increasing pollution Fig. 7-4, p. 142

Community Structure Physical appearance Species diversity or richness Species abundance Niche structure

Parking lot community

C. Species Equilibrium Model High Low Rate of immigration or extinction Equilibrium number Immigration and extinction rates Number of species on island (a) © 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning Fig. 7-5a, p. 143 Start here 7th 10/10/08 Large islands tend to have more species than small islands. Why? Species equilibrium model – AKA theory of island biogeography – Robert MacArthur and E. O. Wilson, 1960’s, the number of species on an island is a balance between immigration and extinction. At some point there is an equilibrium point which is the average number of species on the island. Model predicts that two factors affect the number of species on an island 1) size and 2) degree of isolation 1) Small island is a smaller target so fewer species land on it (low immigration), and should have higher extinction rate because fewer resources. 2) Island far away from mainland source (species pool) – lower immigration rate than island closer to mainland.

Number of species on island © 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning High Low Rate of immigration or extinction Small island Effect of island size Number of species on island (b) Large island © 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning Fig. 7-5b, p. 143

© 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning High Low Rate of immigration or extinction Far island Number of species on island Near island Immigration (near island) (far island) Extinction Effect of distance from mainland Fig. 7-5c, p. 143

Island biogeography animation Area and distance effects interaction. Click to view animation.

D. The Ecological Niche Niche - conditions and resources influence the maintenance, growth, and reproduction of organisms practically it is not possible to describe all conditions and resources that influence an organism, so ecologist focus on the most important niche parameters. for example: temperature may be the most important niche parameter for a plant growing at the northern limit of the range. Start here 6th 10/10/08 The niche as an "n–dimensional hypervolume": theoretically many conditions and resources influence the maintenance, growth, and reproduction of organisms; each of these n conditions and resources can be represented as an axis in a graph; n axis represents an "n–dimensional hypervolume" practically it is not possible to describe all conditions and resources that influence an organism, so ecologist focus on the most important niche parameters. for example: temperature may be the most important niche parameter for a plant growing at the northern limit of the range. © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP

1. Fundamental vs. Realized Niche a. fundamental niche: the full range of conditions and resources that an organism could theoretically use in the absence of competition with other species. b. realized niche: the portion of the fundamental niche that an organism actually occupies; actual range of conditions and resources that an organism uses. © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP

2. Generalists vs. Specialists generalists have broad niches; specialists have narrow niches Examples? examples of generalists: cockroaches, coyotes, dandelions, humans; examples of specialists: spotted owls, which require old–growth forests in the Pacific Northwest; giant pandas, which eat primarily bamboo in bamboo forests of China; generalists may have advantage when environmental conditions change (e.g., weedy species such as dandelions in disturbed habitat); whereas specialists may have advantage when environmental conditions are more constant (e.g., many species of tropical rain forest). © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP

E. General Types of Species Native species – species that normally live and thrive in an ecosystem Non-native species (exotic, alien, introduced) – species that migrate into ecosystem, or are deliberately or accidentally introduced by humans, some beneficial, others thrive and out-compete native species Native – species that normally live and thrive in a particular ecosystem Non-native, exotic, alien, introduced – species that migrate into ecosystem or are deliberately or accidentally introduced by humans (for crops or hunting). Some are beneficial, but others thrive and crowd out native species. Invasive species – non-native species that has become a pest. Ex. Introduced African bees were imported to Brazil to increase honey production. They have displaced native honeybees and reduced honey supply and have migrated northward. Indicator species – serve as an early warning size of damage to community or ecosystem. Birds are good – found almost everywhere, respond quickly to env. Change. NA insect-eating songbirds have decreased due to habitat loss or fragmentation. Frogs are another good indicator because they live on land and in the water (part of life cycle in both) Keystone species – role is important, more so than their abundance or biomass suggests. Controversial term – all species are important. Play pivotal roles in structure and function of ecosystem because 1) strong interactions with other species affect health and survival of many other species, 2) they process material out of proportion to their numbers. Ex. – pollinators, seed dispersers (bats), habitat modification (lichens, elephants), predation by top carnivores, nitrogen fixing bacteria, recycling animal wastes.

General Types of Species cont’d a. Introduced species – see above b. Invasive species – non-native species that has become a pest Fire Ants 3. Keystone species – role is important, more so than their abundance or biomass Flying Fox 4. Indicator species – serve as an early warning sign of damage to community or ecosystem. Birds, insects, amphibians Ex. Introduced African bees were imported to Brazil to increase honey production. They have displaced native honeybees and reduced honey supply and have migrated northward. Indicator species – serve as an early warning size of damage to community or ecosystem. Birds are good – found almost everywhere, respond quickly to env. Change. NA insect-eating songbirds have decreased due to habitat loss or fragmentation. Frogs are another good indicator because they live on land and in the water (part of life cycle in both) Keystone species – role is important, more so than their abundance or biomass suggests. Controversial term – all species are important. Play pivotal roles in structure and function of ecosystem because 1) strong interactions with other species affect health and survival of many other species, 2) they process material out of proportion to their numbers. Ex. – pollinators, seed dispersers (bats), habitat modification (lichens, elephants), predation by top carnivores, nitrogen fixing bacteria, recycling animal wastes.

Life Cycle of a Frog-indicator species sperm Eggs Sexual reproduction Fertilized egg development Organ formation Egg hatches Tadpole develops Into frog Young frog Adult frog (3 years) Good indicator species because lives on land and in water. Also has short life cycle? Fig. 7-6, p. 145

F. Species Interactions: 1. Competition Intraspecific competition - same species b. Interspecific competition -diff. species same resource Intraspecific competition – within species Interspecific competition – between/among species. Interspecific competition results because of niche overlap = overlap in requirements for limited resources. interference competition: one species limits another species' access to a resource; e.g., hummingbirds defending feeding territories. exploitation competition: competing species both have access to a limited resource, but one exploits the resource more quickly or efficiently. Resource partitioning – the dividing up of scarce resources so that species with similar needs use them at different times, in different ways, or in different places (birds that hunt for insects in different parts of the tree or at different times) Resource partitioning is niche specialization Interference competition – LOOK IT UP Exploitation competition -

Resource Partitioning of Warbler Species Robert MacArthur Warblers in NE US and Canada – different parts of the tree Fig. 7-8, p. 148

Resource partitioning

Resource Partitioning Species with similar resource requirements can coexist because they use limited resources at different times, in different ways, or in different places. For example, specialized feeding niches of various birds of coastal wetland enable coexistence of many species. Fig. 9–4a © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP

c. Resource Partitioning and Niche Specialization Fig. 7-7, p. 147

Species interactions-Symbiosis Competition Predation Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism

Research Predation Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism Invasive species Native species Indicator species Keystone species

f. Competitive Exclusion Principle Gause's competition experiment interaction. Start here 6th 10/15 Click to view animation.

2. Species Interactions: Predation Predator Prey c. Prey acquisition – 2 types Predation – organism of one species captures and feeds on part or all of an organism of another species. (includes plants – Venus fly trap) Prey – organism that is captured and serves as food source for an organism of another species (includes plants – cows eat grass) Prey acquisition – Carnivores – use pursuit (lions, cheetah) or ambush (alligator snapping turtle) Predator avoidance – ability to run or swim highly developed sense of sight or smell to alert them to predators protective shells (armadillo, crab, turtle) thick bark spines (porcupine) d. Predator avoidance e. Defense

Avoiding or Defending Against Predators Avoidance Defense Escape Chemical warfare Senses Armor Camouflage Safety in numbers Mimicry Behavioral strategies Both Warning coloration

How Species Avoid Predators Span worm Bombardier beetle Viceroy butterfly mimics monarch butterfly Foul-tasting monarch butterfly Poison dart frog When touched, the snake caterpillar changes shape to look like the head of a snake Wandering leaf insect Hind wings of io moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal Worm and leaf insect – camouflage Bombardier beetle – irritating – chemical warfare Monarch butterfly – foul tasting Warning coloration – warns that is toxic – poison dart frog OR mimics something that tastes bad or is poisonous – viceroy butterfly mimics monarch - mimicry Behavioral strategies – snake caterpillar puffs up to look like snake head; puffer fish. Schooling fish, flocks of birds

3. Species Interactions: Parasitism Parasite Host Dangers of parasites Species interactions Parasitism one species feeds on part of another organism by living on or in the host. Parasite benefits and host is harmed, but not usually killed Parasitism – is a special form of predation. Parasite – 1) usually smaller than host 2) remains closely associated with, draws nourishment from, and may gradually weaken host over time. 3) rarely kills host. Examples = tapeworms, disease-causing microorganisms, parasites inside hosts. Parasites outside host – fleas, ticks, lice, mosquitoes, fungi Importance of parasites

4. Species Interactions: Mutualism Examples Pollination Nutritional Gut inhabitants Protection Rhizobium and legumes

Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros Clown fish and sea anemone Mutualism Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros Clown fish and sea anemone Mycorrhizae fungi on juniper seedlings in normal soil Lack of mycorrhizae fungi on juniper seedlings in sterilized soil Fig. 7-10, p. 151

5. Species Interactions: Commensalism Species interaction that benefits one and has little or no effect on the other

+ - Symbiosis Species 1 Sp. 2 Mutualism & Synergism Predation Mutualism & Synergism Predation & Parasitism Competition Stopped 2nd 9/19 Mutualism – obligatory Synergism – facultative Neutralism – could include cases where competition is minimal. Commensalism Amensalism Neutralism

Community Ecology Part 2 APES Chapter 7 Community Ecology Part 2

What is a bee’s niche? YouTube - NATURE | Silence Of The Bees | Online Exclusive | PBS

Diversity

Succession. Animation.

G. Ecological Succession Process in which communities of plant and animals species are replaced over time by a series of different communities Facilitation -

Enchanted Rock

Two kinds of Succession 1. Primary succession - begins with a lifeless area where there is no soil (ex. bare rock). Soil formation begins with lichens or moss. 2. Secondary succession - begins in an area where the natural community has been disturbed, removed, or destroyed, but soil or bottom sediments remain.

1. Primary Succession

1. Primary Ecological Succession Fig. 7-11 p. 152 Click here for animation

2. Secondary Ecological Succession Fig. 7-12, p. 153

3. Pioneer species  pioneer community 4. Equilibrium species Succession 3. Pioneer species  pioneer community 4. Equilibrium species 5. Successional species = pioneer & equilibrium species 6. Climax species  climax community

(Number of species)

Mechanisms of Succession Both primary and secondary succession are driven by three mechanisms: facilitation: a process by which an earlier successional species makes the environment suitable for later successional species; e.g., legumes fixing nitrogen can enable later successional species; inhibition: a process whereby one species hinders the establishment and growth of other species; e.g., shade of late successional trees inhibits the growth of early successional trees; tolerance: a process whereby later successional species are unaffected by earlier successional species. © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP

Changes During Succession During succession species diversity and stratification tend to increase, while growth rates and primary productivity tend to decrease. Fig. 9–23 © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP

6. Effects on Succession and Species Diversity a. Disturbance b. Intermediate disturbance hypothesis Harvester ant mound

6 b. Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis 100 Percentage disturbance Species diversity Fig. 7-13, p. 154

7. How Predictable is Succession? Climax community “Balance of nature” Unpredictable struggle TAKE NOTES FROM BOOK Ecologists’ views

H. Ecological Stability and Sustainability 2. Inertia 3. Persistence 4. Constancy Stability – systems made up of complex networks of positive and negative feedback loops that provide stability or sustainability. Maintained by constant dynamic change in response to changing environmental conditions. Trees die and others take their place. Forest burns and new plants come in. Inertia or persistence – the ability of a living system to resist being disturbed or altered. Constancy – ability to keep numbers (as in population) within the limits imposed by available resources. Resilience – ability of living system to bounce back after an external disturbance that is not too drastic. Precautionary Principle – if you don’t know if technology or chemicals will harm people or the environment, then try to cause to harm Does diversity increase stability? Yes and no – exceptions, functional groups important, especially producers and decomposers. Hard to say if simple systems are less stable than more complex – have to know a lot about the system and the roles that all the species play (niches). David Tilman – (resource partitioning expert, competition) (1) ecosystems with more species have higher net primary productivity and are more resilient, (2) population of species can fluctuate widely in more diverse ecosystems – so diversity provides insurance against catastrophe, but we don’t know how much diversity is necessary. Examples – Tropical rainforest has high diversity and high inertia (resists change) but low resilience – can’t bounce back after major disturbance. Grasslands – much less diverse than forests, low inertia, but high resilience. 5. Resilience 6. Species diversity and ecosystem stability 7. Precautionary principle

Environmental degradation Vanishing biodiversity I. Depletion of Resources in the Western Hemisphere Click here for animation Grizzly bear NORTH AMERICA St. Lawrence beluga whale Eastern cougar Humpback whale More than 60% of the Pacific Northwest coastal forest has been cut down Spotted owl Fish catch in the north-west Atlantic has fallen 42% since its peak in 1973 Black- footed ferret 40% of North America’s range and cropland has lost productivity Florida panther Chesapeake Bay is overfished and polluted California condor Manatee Kemp’s ridley turtle Much of Everglades National Park has dried out and lost 90% of its wading birds Hawaiian monk seal Golden toad Coral reef destruction Half of the forest in Honduras and Nicaragua has disappeared Columbia has lost one-third of its forest Every year 14,000 square kilometers of rain forest is destroyed in the Amazon Basin Mangroves cleared in Equador for shrimp ponds This is an animated file from the textbook website Humans are a major source of disturbance We don’t know how resilient some species or ecosystems are, obviously many are not resilient. Black lion tamarin PACIFIC OCEAN SOUTH AMERICA Little of Brazil’s Atlantic forest remains ATLANTIC OCEAN Environmental degradation Southern Chile’s rain forest is threatened Vanishing biodiversity Endangered species Fig. 7-14a, p. 156 6.0 or more children per woman

I. Depletion of Resources in the Western Hemisphere Click here for animation EUROPE Mediterranean Liberia AFRICA Imperial eagle 640,000 square kilometers south of the Sahara have turned to desert since 1940 Mali Burkina Faso Sierra Leone Togo Sao Tome 68% of the Congo’s rain forest is slated for cleaning Fish catches in Southeast Atlantic have dropped by more than 50% since 1973 Black rhinoceros Zambia Angola Congo Rwanda Burundi Uganda Somalia Nigeria Chad Niger Benin Golden tamarin Ethiopia Eritrea Madagascar has lost 66% of its tropical forest Aye-aye Yemen Oman Saudi Arabia Poland is one of the world’s most polluted countries Many parts of former Soviet Union are polluted with industrial and radio- active waste Area of Aral Sea has Shrunk 46% Central Asia from the Middle East to China has lost 72% of range and cropland ASIA Asian elephant India and Sri Lanka have almost no rain forest left In peninsular Malaysia almost all forests have been cut INDIAN OCEAN Indonesia’s coral reefs are threatened and mangrove forests have been cut in half Giant panda Kouprey Queen Alexandra’s Birdwing butterfly Nail-tailed wallaby AUSTALIA Much of Australia’s range and cropland have turned to desert 90% of the coral reefs are threatened in the Philippines. All virgin forest will be gone by 2010 Deforestation in the Himalaya causes flooding in Bangladesh Japanese timber imports are responsible for much of the world’s tropical deforestation Blue whale ANTARCTICA A thinning of the ozone layer occurs over Antarctica during summer Snow leopard Fig. 7-14b, p. 157

Trail Mix Diversity Lab – data collection and calculations Discussion about diversity next time Shannon-Weiner Index – Diversity is maximized when there are (1) more species and (2) uneven abundances Example: Species 1 Species 2 Species 3 Species 4 Community 1 1% 5% 80% 14% Community 2 20% 30% 25%

Random Sampling lab Groups of 2-3 people Materials: Scissors Paper Ruler Two containers Pencil Calculator