STUDENT NOTES 2 CH. 6 NIGERIA

Since Independence 1979 – Presidential System Both systems experienced frequent interruptions/periods of Military Rule – frequent coups

Since Independence  A Nigerian pattern  Military leaders say they are preparing for a transition to democratic leadership but it never seemed to happen.  Leaders who are truly interested in the transition are assassinated like Murtala Muhammed in  General Babangida announced a democratic transition and then annulled the 1993 election (the elusive 3 rd republic)  General Abacha schemed to orchestrate the outcome of his announced transition in 1998 to produce his own “election” as president.

Policy Making Institutions: The Executive  Executive – President and Cabinet  Directly elected, 4 yr term, 2 term limit  Elected popularly – must win 25% of votes cast in 2/3 of states in 2 round majority system  May appoint officials to all parts of national government without approval of legislature  Receives all gov oil revenues and distributes to states according to written law  Commander-in-chief  Veto power  Current President: Goodluck Jonathan

Policy Making Institutions: The Executive 1999 Constitution Authored by military – not approved until after elections had occurred Enormous powers in the federal government and in the hands of the president (legacy of authoritarian military rule – several military dictators called themselves ‘president’ like Babangida and Abacha) Powers of the state and local governments are delineated by the federal constitution and most of them receive their entire budget from the center “Federal character” maintained by ethnic quotas

Military Executives Hurt the image of the military – was viewed as a “predatory apparatus” and not the guardian of the people. Abacha suspended habeas corpus and hounded opponents into exile Legislature disbanded and major executive decisions were subject to approval of a military ruling council (all members were ‘yes- man’ clients of the dictator)

Obasanjo retired all military leaders who held positions under military governments Promised to fix the economy and Nigerian state. Raised the minimum wage New management for oil sector “truth and reconciliation” commission to address abuses and fight corruption Won re-election amid a electoral malpractices which lost confidence among the people. National Political Reform conference to review constitution and establish legitimacy. Attempted to maintain power by declaring himself “chairman for life” The people elected Yar’ Adua in May Good luck Jonathan elected in May Policy Making Institutions: The Executive

Policy Making Institutions: The Legislative  Legislature – parliamentary until 1979, now bicameral National Assembly  Senators and Representatives serve 4 year terms, elected the week before the president  Senate  109 Senators, 3 per state, 1 from Abuja  Very diverse given the different regions that are equally represented  House of Representatives  360 members  Very little power, but occasionally acts as a check on president (like when Obasanjo wanted a 3rd term); attempted to impeach him multiple times

Policy Making Institutions: Bureaucracy Assumed to be bloated, corrupt, and inefficient – Parastatals – privately and publically owned, headed by government appointees (part of the patron-client network) Provide public utilities or major industries – Nigerian Electric Power Administration (NEPA) – called “ Never Expect Power Again ” by Nigerians – Changed name to Power Holding Company (PHC) – called “ Please Hold Candle ” by Nigerians State corporatism – parastatals serve to give the appearance of public/private cooperation, while really giving the state control

Policy Making Institutions: Bureaucracy As with many “developing nations”, the bureaucracy has been the source of employment for large numbers of people not engaged in trade or agriculture. Major source of corruption due to political instability, lack of accountability, and massive cash from oil production. Bureaucracy has maintained its power throughout military and civilian rule

Prebendalism Disbursing of public offices and state rents to one’s ethnic- based clients. The officeholder’s “clients” comprise a specific set of elites to which he is linked, typically by ethnic or religious ties – Kaduna Mafia – Abacha’s Boys & Babangida’s Boys Prebendalism deepened sectional cleavages and eroded the resources of the state. It also discouraged genuinely productive activity in civil society and expanded the class of individuals who live off state patronage Transparency International lists Nigeria as one of the world’s most corrupt nations

Policy Making Institutions: The Judiciary 15 judges on SC appointed by president and confirmed by Senate Federal and state courts with an appeals process up to the Supreme Court Strong and autonomous after independence, but since ravaged by military rule Most judges today are not well versed in law, easily manipulated by the government Theoretically in charge of judicial review, not practically Law is complicated by the sharia which operates in 12 northern states, controversially

Policy Making Institutions: The Military You cannot study Nigerian politics without recognizing the importance of the military in all aspects of political life. A mix of ethnic groups Well disciplined, organized, with the ability to make decisions efficiently and effectively One of only sources of national unity Armed forces also seen as more representative than political parties and other institutions of government that are subject to ethnic-based patronage. HOWEVER, ethnic cleavages are the backdrop to military/authoritarian rule

Policy Making Institutions: The Military  Guess what? It’s strong!  Military made distinctions between “military in government” and “military in barracks” after early coups  “Military in government” presidents (like Babangida) had to restrain influence of traditional military  Appointed senior military to cabinet positions to make them part of his patronage network  The best place for young Nigerians to improve their lives, demonstrate their talents  Controversial, but it is the one national institution with the capability to restore order

Citizens, Society, and the State Necessary condition for democratization: citizens need to have time to pay attention and participate in the political process Problem for Nigeria: – One of the most fragmented countries IN THE WORLD – People are FRAGMENTED and POLARIZED Any concession is seen as total defeat – Only thing they have in common is poverty Large gap between rich and poor (Gini = 48.8) – Health issues – AIDS epidemic (1 in 11 AIDS carriers are Nigerian) – Literacy – 75.7% for men, 60.6% for women Illiteracy highest in countryside (~50%)

Citizens, Society, and the State  GEOGRAPHY  Entire state divided based on ethnicity  Urbanization on trend  Cities segregated based on ethnicity  CIVIL SOCIETY  Open and free JUST NOT EFFECTIVE  Religious, occupational groups, student groups, women’s groups  POLITICAL PARTICIPATION  Limited to voting, joining civil groups based on religion/ethnicity  MEDIA  Freedom of the press  Both privately and publically (regional and national) owned  Mainly radio; newspapers and TV

SOCIO-ECONOMIC

ETHNICITY

LITERACY

OIL

Citizens, Society, and the State Public Opinion and Political Participation – Protests, Participation, and Social Movements Increasing protest and organization/mobilization since 1999 Often focused around international oil companies

Citizens, Society, and the State There's a long-standing dilemma in Nigeria's oil-rich Niger Delta region. The people are desperately poor and blame the oil companies for polluting their land and fishing waters. As a result, many folks steal oil from pipelines and refine it in barrels along the creeks. That, in turn, further pollutes the environment.

Citizens, Society, and the State ETHNIC MOVEMENTS arose – socioeconomic inequality and discrimination. – exploitation of local natural resources by the government and foreign oil companies MEND: Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta. MOSOP: Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People. Indigenous peoples in Niger Delta (Ijaw). OPC: Oodua People’s Congress (Yoruba). MASSOB: Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (Igbo) Boko Haram

Citizens, Society, and the State MEND's stated goals are to localize control of Nigeria's oil and to secure reparations from the federal government for pollution caused by the oil industry

Citizens, Society, and the State MOSOP's mandate is to campaign non- violently to: promote democratic awareness; protect the environment of the Ogoni people; seek social, economic and physical development for the region; protect the cultural rights and practices of the Ogoni people; and seek appropriate rights of self- determination for the Ogoni people.

Citizens, Society, and the State  Environmentalist  Ken Saro-Wiwa  Targeted the international oil companies  At the peak of his non-violent campaign, he was tried by a special military tribunal for allegedly masterminding the gruesome murder of Ogoni chiefs at a pro- government meeting, and hanged in 1995 by the military dictatorship of General Sani Abacha. His execution provoked international outrage and resulted in Nigeria's suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations for over three years.

Citizens, Society, and the State: Political Parties Regionally based multiethnic coalitions Extreme factionalization resulted in development of so many parties, there is no coherent party system GOALS and IDEOLOGIES rarely mentioned Parties appear and disappear based on leaders Currently: – People’s Democratic Party (PDP) – All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) – Action Congress (AC) – merger of many parties

Citizens, Society, and the State People’s Democratic Party (PDP) – Has national appeal – Has won every presidential election since 1999 – Claim to support market economy and national health service – Social conservatism All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) 2003 – Formally the All People’s Party APP 1999 – Northern thus Muslim-based party – Main opposition party Action Congress (AC) – Left of center

Citizens, Society, and the State: Elections Elections are a matter not of issues but of personality, patronage, and of regional, religious and ethnic identities Rigging and voter manipulation common Violence and uproar after elections common Promote growth toward democracy…aka, better than a coup

2011 Presidential Election