1. NIGERIA STUDENT NOTES
CH. 6

2. Overview: The Big Picture
System of Government: Presidential System
Distribution of Power: Federal System (not typical)
Electoral System: Single Member District Plurality
Constitution: Constitution of 1999
Legislature: Bicameral—Senate and House of Rep.
Current Head of State: President Muhammadu Buhari
Head of Government: President Muhammadu Buhari
Current Ruling Party: All Progressives Congress
Major Political Parties: People’s Democratic Party (PDP), All Progressives Congress, (APC), All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP), Action Congress (AC)

3. What is Nigeria?
Since independence (1960) been defined by four republics – mostly military rule caused by violent coups
Currently considered an oligarchy b/c of embedded corruption
Oil money run by the state - RENTIER
Unfinished state – instability of institutions and political uncertainty
Since 1999 (4th Republic) stable democratic elections and transition of power (1999, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015) – federal, state, local
Multiethnic political parties, free and active press, civil society, not many human rights abuses by government
When a colony – north and south controlled differently – leads to immense cleavages now
Oldest surviving federation in Africa
7th most populous countries in the world – most populous in Africa (190 million)
60% of West African population lives in Nigeria
2/3 of population under 25
85% live on less than $2/day
Half population Muslim; half Christian
HDI 152/174; Half GDP for the entire sub region

4. Nigeria is a country with so much. Why does it have all these problems?

5. ESSENTIAL THEMES What has shaped current policy challenges?
1) British colonialism: geography never matched identity
2) Religious, ethnic BOTH pair w/ education and wealth levels
Internal ethnic and/or religious associations/in-fighting: Boko Haram, MEND, MOSOP
3) Rentier state
Exploitation of natural resource undermines indigenous population in Niger Delta
Over 90% of export earnings - price fluctuations, corruption
4) Democratic instability since independence in 1960
4 different attempts to democratize (all ended by coup d'état)
Controlled by military 29 out of 55 yrs.

6. Geography
Located in Western Africa, it is the center of the areas regional trade, culture and military strength.
It is bordered by four countries: Benin, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon.
Its natural resource of oil makes it a hub of activity and conflict
Nigeria’s current day borders was an arbitrary creation reflecting British colonial interests.

7. Population
Nigeria, with 174 million people, ranks as the most populous nation in Africa.
The northwest is dominated by the largest ethnic group, the Hausa-Fulani.
The north are predominantly Muslim.
The Southwest is dominated by the country’s second largest group, the Yoruba.
The Southeast is the homeland of the Igbo, Nigeria’s third largest group.

8. Geographic Influences
Northwest – dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Fulani people, area is predominantly Muslim.
Northeast – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, also predominantly Muslim.
Middle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians.
Southwest – Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 20% native religions.
Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic with some Protestant Christians as well
Southern Zone – area along Niger River Delta, people are from various small minority groups.

9. The North
Hausa-
Fulani
The West
Yoruba
The East
Igbo

10. Big Ideas to Keep in Your Head !
No Cross Cutting Cleavages
Ethnic, Regional, and Religious Coincide
No National Identity!
Nigeria is only 50 years old
Country created because of colonialism
Parliamentary system failed…why?
Presidential system is working…why?

11. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Legitimacy
Newly independent (1960)
The sole stable national institution is the military
Only truly NATIONAL institution is disciplined and able to make decisions efficiently and effectively
Leads to legitimacy of military’s right to rule
Most leaders have been generals
Extremely low legitimacy of government, overall – never been stable
Massive corruption, distrust of government

12. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
COLONIAL PERIOD: ( )
British establish colonial enterprise based on exploitation of natural resources
Divided northern and southern regions
Further reinforced ethnic/religious cleavages
FIRST REPUBLIC: (60 – 67)
Parliamentary system w/ Muslim PM
Military coup and Biafran War
SECOND REPUBLIC (79 – 83)
Obasanjo brings democratic reform
Coup by Muslim general
Patterned after American system
THIRD REPUBLIC (92 – 93)
Aborted/short-lived attempt at democratic elections
FOURTH REPUBLIC (1999 – present)
Obasanjo democratically elected president

13. Influence of British Rule
British moved into Nigeria with a combination of government control, religious mission, and economic incentive
Deepened ethnic and regional divisions
Indirect rule in the north (Muslim leaders)
Direct rule in south
Christianity
(Islam already in North from Arab traders)
Western-style education
Mostly in south (Christian missionaries)
Independence – 1960
Westminster Model
Ethnic divisions made it difficult to identify a majority party or allow a PM to have necessary authority

14. Biafra (1967-70) Igbo secessionist state
Desired freedom because they believed the North would always dominate because of their larger numbers (Igbo are the smallest of the big-three ethnicities)
Three year civil war resulted in over a million deaths
Yakubu Gowon, a Middle-Belt Christian came to power to lead a Nigerian unity government to stop the secession

15. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
Elected leadership in 1960, overthrown in military coup in 1966
3 more coups by 1976, Olusegun Obasanjo takes power
Willfully steps down for democratically elected president in 1979
2 more coups by 1985, when Ibrahim Babangida takes power
Resigned under public pressure in 1993 when he promised to step down for civilian leadership, then voided the election
Sani Abacha ( ) rules brutally, dies of a heart attack (maybe poisoned?), replaced by Vice President Abubakar
Obasanjo elected for 2 terms ( )
Umaru Yar’Adua elected in 2007
All elections finished with concerns of fraud, violence, etc.
Dies and Goodluck Jonathan (VP) takes over in 2010

16. The Second and Third Republics, and Predatory Military Rule (1979-1999)
Second Republic ( )- Shehu Shagari (National Party of Nigeria- did little to stop corruption, fraud or violence.
General Muhammadu Buhari seized power (1983); failed to revive economy or return to democratic rule
Gen. Ibrahim Babangida seized power (1985); promised democracy but did not follow through; election of 1993 annulled yet won by a Yoruba; Babangida ultimately resigned amid public pressure but hand-picked his successor,
Who would be replaced by Gen. Sani Abacha, who also promised democratic reform but delayed and cracked down on political dissent; died in 1998; replaced by Gen. Abdulsalami Abubakar who in turn handed power over to a democratically elected President O. Obasanjo.

17. Ibrahim Babangida
Military President, 1985 – 1993
Resigned

18. Sani Abacha
Military President, 1993 – 1998
Died in office

19. Olusegun Obasanjo Military President, 1976 – 1979
Resigned for democratic leadership
President, 1999 – 2007
Term limited

20. The Fourth Republic (1999-present)
Obasanjo retired all military leaders who held positions under military governments
Promised to fix the economy and Nigerian state.
Raised the minimum wage
Paid off large foreign debt
New management for oil sector
“truth and reconciliation” commission to address abuses and fight corruption
Won re-election amid a electoral malpractices which lost confidence among the people.
National Political Reform conference to review constitution and establish legitimacy.
Attempted to maintain power by declaring himself “chairman for life”
The people elected Yar’ Adua in May 2007.
Good luck Jonathan elected in May 2010.

21. Umaru Yar’Adua
President, 2007 – 2010
Died and replaced by VP

22. Goodluck Jonathan
President, 2010 – 2016

23. This time he was directly elected
Muhammadu Buhari is the President of Nigeria, in office since 29 May He is a retired Nigerian Army major general and was Head of State of Nigeria from 31 December 1983 to 27 August 1985, after taking power in a military coup d'état
This time he was directly elected
All Peoples Congress Party/APC

24. MARCH, 2015 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION
First time in history opposition party peacefully took power and an incumbent president didn’t win.

25. Elections & Electoral Procedures
State & local governments are completely dependent on the central government
National Elections
Presidential Elections
If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot election takes place.
President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the states
A purely regional candidate can not win/requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt to unify Nigeria

26. Since Independence 1979 – Presidential System
Both systems experienced frequent interruptions/periods of Military Rule –frequent coups

27. Since Independence A Nigerian pattern
Military leaders say they are preparing for a transition to democratic leadership but it never seemed to happen.
Leaders who are truly interested in the transition are assassinated like Murtala Muhammed in 1976.
General Babangida announced a democratic transition and then annulled the 1993 election (the elusive 3rd republic)
General Abacha schemed to orchestrate the outcome of his announced transition in 1998 to produce his own “election” as president.

28. Elections Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their states, but elections are held on all three levels (Federation)
Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
Attempted to cleanse electoral process
International teams concluded elections were corrupt
Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent votes
Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious
Register new political parties

29. Policy Making Institutions: The Executive
Executive – President and Cabinet
Directly elected, 4 yr term, 2 term limit
Elected popularly – must win 25% of votes cast in 2/3 of states in 2 round majority system
May appoint officials to all parts of national government without approval of legislature
Receives all gov oil revenues and distributes to states according to written law
Commander-in-chief
Veto power

30. Policy Making Institutions: The Executive
1999 Constitution
Authored by military – not approved until after elections had occurred
Enormous powers in the federal government and in the hands of the president (legacy of authoritarian military rule – several military dictators called themselves ‘president’ like Babangida and Abacha)
Powers of the state and local governments are delineated by the federal constitution and most of them receive their entire budget from the center
“Federal character” maintained by ethnic quotas

31. Military Executives
Hurt the image of the military – was viewed as a “predatory apparatus” and not the guardian of the people.
Abacha suspended habeas corpus and hounded opponents into exile
Legislature disbanded and major executive decisions were subject to approval of a military ruling council (all members were ‘yes-man’ clients of the dictator)

32. Policy Making Institutions: The Legislature
Legislature – parliamentary until 1979, now bicameral National Assembly
Senators and Representatives serve 4 year terms, elected the week before the president
Senate
109 Senators, 3 per state, 1 from Abuja
Very diverse given the different regions that are equally represented
House of Representatives
360 members
Very little power, but occasionally acts as a check on president (like when Obasanjo wanted a 3rd term); attempted to impeach him multiple times

33. Policy Making Institutions: Bureaucracy
Appointed on the basis of patronage, ethnic groups, regional origin
Called PREBENDALISM in Nigeria b/c based off mostly ethnicity
Salaries constitute half of government expenditures which is why anti corruption efforts have intervened to control spending.
Assumed to be bloated, corrupt, and inefficient
Parastatals – privately and publically owned, headed by government appointees (part of the patron-client network)
Provide public utilities or major industries
Nigerian Electric Power Administration (NEPA) – called “Never Expect Power Again” by Nigerians
Changed name to Power Holding Company (PHC) – called “Please Hold Candle” by Nigerians
State corporatism – parastatals serve to give the appearance of public/private cooperation, while really giving the state control

34. Bureaucracy-Parastatals
Corporatism – authoritarian political system that allows for political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure
In Nigeria, this input is provided by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it is referred to as State Corporatism
Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest as well as fulfills social & economic functions
Parastatals serve as contact point between government & business interests, but state ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept)

35. Bureaucracy-Parastatals
Most government agencies are parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico)
Provide commercial and social welfare services
Board members are appointed by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage system
Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidies
Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and petroleum

36. Policy Making Institutions: Bureaucracy
As with many “developing nations”, the bureaucracy has been the source of employment for large numbers of people not engaged in trade or agriculture.
Major source of corruption due to political instability, lack of accountability, and massive cash from oil production.
Bureaucracy has maintained its power throughout military and civilian rule

37. Prebendalism
Disbursing of public offices and state rents to one’s ethnic-based clients.
The officeholder’s “clients” comprise a specific set of elites to which he is linked, typically by ethnic or religious ties
Kaduna Mafia
Abacha’s Boys & Babangida’s Boys
Prebendalism deepened sectional cleavages and eroded the resources of the state. It also discouraged genuinely productive activity in civil society and expanded the class of individuals who live off state patronage
Transparency International lists Nigeria as one of the world’s most corrupt nations

38. Policy Making Institutions: The Judiciary
Following English common law – except those northern states who adhere to sharia
Politicized under harsher military leaders, but now largely independent w/ some credibility
15 judges on SC appointed by president and confirmed by Senate
Federal and state courts with an appeals process up to the Supreme Court
Strong and autonomous after independence, but since ravaged by military rule
Most judges today are not well versed in law, easily manipulated by the government
Theoretically in charge of judicial review, not practically
Law is complicated by the sharia which operates in 12 northern states, controversially

39. Policy Making Institutions: The Military
You cannot study Nigerian politics without recognizing the importance of the military in all aspects of political life.
A mix of ethnic groups
Well disciplined, organized, with the ability to make decisions efficiently and effectively
One of only sources of national unity
Armed forces also seen as more representative than political parties and other institutions of government that are subject to ethnic-based patronage.
HOWEVER, ethnic cleavages are the backdrop to military/authoritarian rule

40. Policy Making Institutions: The Military
Guess what? It’s strong!
Military made distinctions between “military in government” and “military in barracks” after early coups
“Military in government” presidents (like Babangida) had to restrain influence of traditional military
Appointed senior military to cabinet positions to make them part of his patronage network
The best place for young Nigerians to improve their lives, demonstrate their talents
Controversial, but it is the one national institution with the capability to restore order

41. Citizens, Society, and the State: Political Parties
Regionally based multiethnic coalitions
Extreme factionalization resulted in development of so many parties, there is no coherent party system
GOALS and IDEOLOGIES rarely mentioned
Parties appear and disappear based on leaders
Currently:
People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)
Action Congress (AC) – merger of many parties

42. Citizens, Society, and the State
BIG PICTURE!
Parties are alliances of convenience among Big Men – agenda is based on POWER and CONTROL over resources
People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
Has national appeal
Has won every presidential election since 1999 (until 2015)
Claim to support market economy and national health service
Social conservatism
All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) 2003
Formally the All People’s Party APP 1999
Northern thus Muslim-based party
Main opposition party
Action Congress (AC)
Left of center

43. Citizens, Society, and the State: Elections
Elections are a matter not of issues but of personality, patronage, and of regional, religious and ethnic identities
Rigging and voter manipulation common
Violence and uproar after elections common
Promote growth toward democracy…aka, better than a coup

44. Citizens, Society, and the State
Necessary condition for democratization: citizens need to have time to pay attention and participate in the political process
Problem for Nigeria:
One of the most fragmented countries IN THE WORLD
People are FRAGMENTED and POLARIZED
Any concession is seen as total defeat
Only thing they have in common is poverty
Large gap between rich and poor (Gini = 48.8)
Health issues – AIDS epidemic (1 in 11 AIDS carriers are Nigerian)
Literacy – 75.7% for men, 60.6% for women
Illiteracy highest in countryside (~50%)

45. Citizens, Society, and the State
GEOGRAPHY
Entire state divided based on ethnicity
Urbanization on trend
Cities segregated based on ethnicity
CIVIL SOCIETY
Open and free JUST NOT EFFECTIVE
Religious, occupational groups, student groups, women’s groups
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
Limited to voting, joining civil groups based on religion/ethnicity
MEDIA
Freedom of the press
Both privately and publically (regional and national) owned
Mainly radio; newspapers and TV

46. Citizens, Society, and the State
Public Opinion and Political Participation
Protests, Participation, and Social Movements
Increasing protest and organization/mobilization since 1999
Often focused around international oil companies

47. POLITICAL ECONOMY: OIL
CONSEQUENCES:
lack of diversification of the local economy
price fluctuations caused by dependence on world market
income inequality exacerbated where disparity is already extreme
no incentive to industrialize/modernize economy
increased opportunity for corrupt usage of income from rents
lack of accountability to citizens

48. Citizens, Society, and the State
There's a long-standing dilemma in Nigeria's oil-rich Niger Delta region. The people are desperately poor and blame the oil companies for polluting their land and fishing waters. As a result, many folks steal oil from pipelines and refine it in barrels along the creeks. That, in turn, further pollutes the environment.

49. Citizens, Society, and the State
ETHNIC MOVEMENTS arose
socioeconomic inequality and discrimination.
exploitation of local natural resources by the government and foreign oil companies
MEND: Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta.
MOSOP: Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People.
Indigenous peoples in Niger Delta (Ijaw).
OPC: Oodua People’s Congress (Yoruba).
MASSOB: Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (Igbo)

50. Citizens, Society, and the State
MEND's stated goals are to localize control of Nigeria's oil and to secure reparations from the federal government for pollution caused by the oil industry
Environmentalist
Ken Saro-Wiwa
Targeted the international oil companies

51. Citizens, Society, and the State
MOSOP's mandate is to campaign non-violently to: promote democratic awareness; protect the environment of the Ogoni people; seek social, economic and physical development for the region; protect the cultural rights and practices of the Ogoni people; and seek appropriate rights of self-determination for the Ogoni people.

52. POLITICAL ECONOMY
Origins of Economic Decline
Nigerian economy was centered on agricultural production for domestic consumption as well as for export.
Nigeria self-sufficient in food production at independence
Late 1960s emphasis shifted to nonfood export crops through large-scale enterprises
Small farms received little government support.
Food production declined, food imports increased to meet population needs.
Three factors undermined Nigerian agriculture:
Biafran War (1967–1970)
Severe drought and subsequent famine
Development of petroleum industry

53. POLITICAL ECONOMY
1970s oil boom allowed Nigeria to increase education, defense, infrastructure expenditures
Increased oil wealth increased corruption.
Oil boom: Good and Bad
Nigerian wealth was perceived by elite as source of strength.
When the oil market fell, oil dependence was seen as a source of weakness.
Nigeria was forced to seek support from international financial institutions. IMF & World Bank
Nigeria remains dependent on Western technology and expertise for oil exploration and extraction.
Formation of African Union, based on European-style integration
Governments commit to good governance and economic reforms in exchange for access to Western markets and financial assistance.

54. Political Economy and Development
Nigeria in the Regional Political Economy
Economic Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS)-attempts to unite currency and trade efforts
Mission: promote economic integration across the region; trade block

55. Political Economy and Development
Oil
Oil wealth during the 1970s gave Nigeria international leverage
OPEC member
Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more important as a trade partner for other countries since 1970s
Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices drop
DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of revenue surplus
Structural Adjustment
1980s, Nigeria seeks assistance from international organizations to deal with debt crisis
World Bank & IMF involvement
Restructure & diversification of Nigerian economy
Privatize parastatals
Cut government spending
“Shock Treatment” not very successful
Parastatals still under government control
Debt repayment had to be restructured

56. Reforms Further privatization of state-owned industry
Economic Reforms of the late 1990s
Further privatization of state-owned industry
Limitations on economic controls of the central government
Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasury
Scheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria
Increase in public wages
Hope of decreasing instances of corruption
Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil prices