1. NIGERIA Part 2

2. Public Opinion and Political Participation historically, citizens have been encouraged to relate to the government as subjects gradual emergence of civil society [realm outside of government influence]: professional associations, trade unions,, religious and interest groups relatively free press despite military rule prebendalism/ patron-clientism: large patronage networks based on personal loyalty –accompanied by corruption and informal influence –established form of political participation in Nigeria

3. civil society: serves as both centripetal force (encouraging Nigerian unity) and centrifugal force (causing fragmentation along cleavage lines) MOSOP: Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People –founded by dissident Ken Saro-Wiwa NUPENG: National Union of Petroleum and Gas Workers –support workers in all-important petroleum industry formal associations for legal, medical and journalism professions

4. voting behavior: although voting has taken place in Nigeria since 1959, irregularity of elections makes tracking of voting patterns difficult numerous, fluid political parties, and personalized, charismatic leadership makes party loyalty an imperfect reflection of voter attitudes low level of trust in government, cynicism –questionable commitment by elites to democracy Nigeria ranked very low in “Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index”

5. Corruption Perception Index 2008, 2009 CountryCPI ScoreRank 2008200920082009 China3.6 72:146**79:180 Iran2.31.8141:146168:180 Mexico3.63.372:146**89:180 Nigeria2.72.5121:146130:180 Russia2.12.2147:146146:180 United Kingdom7.7 16:14617:180

6. protest, participation, social movements: mobilization of ethnic-based and religious movements to pressure the federal government to address their grievances major targets: international oil companies operating in the Niger Delta oil fields economy: –British controlled the economy during colonialism, and economy remains under state control today –but, internal conditions have forced Nigeria to turn to supranational organizations – World Bank, IMF – for help in restructuring the country linkange institutions: –Since democratization is so incomplete, linkage institutions are new and fluid

7. political institutions many regime types over course of Nigeria’s history –pre-colonial: well developed, large states with hereditary monarchies in north and west small kinship-based rule in south –colonial: British imposition of indirect authoritarian rule –independence: military-style regimes beginning in 1966 today, federalist and democratic (formally)

8. political parties: –based on region and ethnicity –extreme factionalism –personalization –3 parties in 2007 election: People’s Democratic Party (PDP) All Nigeria People S Party (ANPP) Action Congress (AC) Independent National Election Commission (INEC) –attempted to impose qualification for running for legislature nad president –reduced number of eligible parties –widely accused of fraud

9. elections and election procedures: voting on 3 levels: local, state, national –national election: vote for President, House of Representatives and Senator from their state –Presidential election requires 25% of all votes cast in 2/3 rd of states election fraud –international observers concluded that elections were corrupt –candidates assassinated, voters purged from rolls, protests in 2007 led to violence and deaths of 200 people

10. Interest groups: some civil society organizations cooperate with political parties many based on religion –Christian Association of Nigeria –Muslim organizations supported the sharia court system also labor unions, student groups, populist groups labor unions: before military oppression, these were organized, independent and politically influential –Influence now limited through corporatism: only government approved interest groups can provide feedback to the government –Nigeria Labor Congress organized a successful general strike to protest increases in fuel prices and taxes business interests: sometimes collaborated with the military, sometimes promote economic reform Human Rights groups: loosely organized but active media: independent press, openly criticizes the government

11. Institutions of National Government theoretically a federal political system Constitutions provide for a presidential system with 3 branches of government, but executive has dominated –each of 36 states and local governments have executives and judiciaries, but now totally dependent on the central government –neither checks and balances are functioning the executive under military rule: –all promised ‘transition to democracy –many used repressive tactics –all military and civilian administrations concentrated power in executive office

12. patrimonialism: general/president heads a patron-client system, dispenses jobs/resources as rewards to supporters bureaucracy: bloated, inefficient and corrupt parastatals: government agencies = state-owned corporations, designated to provide commercial and social welfare services –public utilities, transportation, agricultural support, steel, defense products, petroleum –corporatism: government allows political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure –state corporatism: input provided by parastatals

13. the legislature: –post-1979: presidential system with a bicameral legislature: The National Assembly Senate: 109 Senators, elected by direct popular vote House of Representatives: 360 members from single-member districts –legislature as a check on executive power: none under military governments, limited under presidential governments the judiciary: –originally, Nigerian courts combined British common law with traditional/customary law (including sharia in North) –eventually undermined by military rule, judicial review suspended, judges compromised –Supreme Court, Federal Court of Appeals, and single unified system at national and state levels

14. the military: –strong force in policymaking –“military in government” vs. “military in barracks” has led to internal discord frequently blocked democratic reforms but one of the few institutions that is truly national in character

15. public policy –top-down policymaking process –power concentrated in presidency, advisors placed through patron clientelism –“loyalty pyramid”: State controls resources, only access from within –“assumption” that military/political elite serve only their own self-interest –result of a system put in place in colonial era need to revive the communalism of pre-colonial era democratic rule: requires that political leaders assume responsibility for welfare of constituents, not patrons

16. economic issues –Nigeria’s wealth has been squandered –country is deep in debt, people live in poverty –“disappearance” of oil revenue: complicated by ethnic and regional hostilities and widespread distrust of the government –“revenue sharing”: allow government to collect oil revenue and pool them into a ‘federal account’ theoretically, entire country would benefit practically, Niger Delta region objects strongly –a rentier state: (a) economy heavily supported by state (b) state heavily dependent on ‘rent’ from other countries (c) state ‘leases’ its resources “rent –seeking behavior”: individuals, groups, and communities compete for the government’s hand outs – reinforces patron- clientelism –most Nigerians are cut out, left to participate in the informal economy