General EAP writing instruction and transfer of learning Mark Andrew James Arizona State University

Background Context: English-for-general-academic-purposes writing (EGAP) instruction.Context: English-for-general-academic-purposes writing (EGAP) instruction. Targeted learning outcomes (e.g., using a writing process, using resources) and believed to be applicable across disciplines. This is common in North American university settings. Focus: Learning transfer.Focus: Learning transfer. Transfer is a fundamental goal of all EAP instruction, and with EGAP writing instruction, transfer is expected to be broad. L2 and L1 writing scholars question EGAP writing instruction from a transfer perspective. Empirical research has shed some light on this issue, but the picture of how broadly learning transfers here remains unclear.

Research questions Does learning transfer from EGAP writing instruction to other academic courses? If so, what transfers, and to where?

Research design Qualitative case study over one academic year.Qualitative case study over one academic year. Context: One section of a 2-semester freshman EGAP writing course at a large, urban university in the US.Context: One section of a 2-semester freshman EGAP writing course at a large, urban university in the US. Participants: 11 students (out of 19 in that section).Participants: 11 students (out of 19 in that section). 10 freshmen, 1 sophomore; average age 20; 6 male, 5 female; 5 different nationalities (most common South Korean [4 students]); 5 different majors (most common business [6 students])

Data collection Two sources of data:Two sources of data: Interviews with students. Each student was interviewed 2 times in the fall semester and most were also interviewed 2 times in the spring semester. Each interview involved the same set of questions, focusing on whether the student tried to use anything learned or practiced in the EGAP course to do tasks in other courses. Writing samples. Students were asked to provide examples of any writing they did (e.g., lab reports, essays, work sheets for tutorials, short answers on tests/quizzes, messages on online class discussion boards, etc.) for graded tasks in any of their courses. I gathered a total of 54 writing samples (11 from the EGAP course, and 43 from other courses).

Data analysis: Step 1 – interview transcripts Units of analysis were coded for discipline, task type, and the kind of transfer, if any, that had been reported. Example unit of analysis Researcher: When you wrote that [brief explanation after a calculation in your math homework], did you think of [the EGAP course]? Participant: [The EGAP course]? Yes. Yes, I wrote like, ‘‘nevertheless.’’ Yes. Researcher: Really? Participant: It’s like a transition word. Like that. Researcher: So is ‘‘nevertheless’’ a transition word you practiced in [the EGAP course]? Participant: Yes. (Participant 1, interview 1)

Data analysis: Step 1 – interview transcripts Units of analysis were coded for discipline, task type, and the kind of transfer, if any, that had been reported. Example unit of analysis Researcher: When you wrote that [brief explanation after a calculation in your math homework], did you think of [the EGAP course]? Participant: [The EGAP course]? Yes. Yes, I wrote like, ‘‘nevertheless.’’ Yes. Researcher: Really? Participant: It’s like a transition word. Like that. Researcher: So is ‘‘nevertheless’’ a transition word you practiced in [the EGAP course]? Participant: Yes. (Participant 1, interview 1) Discipline: “Natural sciences” Task type: “Explanation of calculation” Kind of transfer: “Establishing coherence”

Data analysis: Step 2 – writing samples Samples were coded for discipline, task type, and whether each of 10 learning outcomes explicitly targeted in the EGAP course textbook had been applied.

Data analysis: Step 2 – writing samples Samples were coded for discipline, task type, and whether each of 10 learning outcomes explicitly targeted in the EGAP course textbook had been applied. 1. describing visually2. stating personal significance 3. narrating4. using similes/metaphors 5. framing6. using temporal transitions 7. using short sentences to 8. avoiding missing commas draw reader’s attention after introductory elements draw reader’s attention after introductory elements 9. avoiding fused sentences 10. using past perfect verb tense accurately tense accurately

Data analysis: Step 2 – writing samples

... Indicator of transfer in writing samples: a student’s application of a given learning outcome (a) in the writing sample from the first major task in the EGAP course and (b) in a writing sample from a subsequent task in another course.

Data analysis: Reliability Another researcher recoded 20% of the data (7 interview transcripts and 13 writing samples). Comparison of the other researcher’s coding decisions with the coding decisions I had made with the same data resulted in intercoder reliability values of 93% (interview transcripts) and 96% (writing samples).

Findings Research questions: Did learning transfer from this EGAP writing course to other academic courses? If so, what transferred, and to where?

Findings from interview transcripts Students reported 8 different kinds of transfer: 1. Organizing (8 students, 15 tasks) 2. Using resources (5 students, 8 tasks) 3. Developing topics (4 students, 5 tasks) 4. Establishing coherence (3 students, 4 tasks) 5. Using appropriate syntactic patterns and devices (3 students, 4 tasks) 6. Using a process (2 students, 5 tasks) 7. Writing efficiently (2 students, 3 tasks) 8. Using appropriate vocabulary (1 students, 1 task)

Findings from interview transcripts Example of reported transfer in the category organizing... Researcher: Why not think about [the EGAP course] when you did this task and the other task? Participant: Why not? Maybe, I don’t know, but one thing, the introduction and the main point and a conclusion thing, I used what I learned. Researcher: Did you consciously, you thought ‘‘I should use an introduction, body, conclusion’’? Participant: Yes, yes. Researcher: When you thought about the structure, and introduction, body, conclusion, did you think about [the EGAP course] or did you think about learning back in Japan? Participant: [The EGAP course]. (Participant 9, interview 1)

Findings from interview transcripts

Findings from writing samples: Transfer across learning outcomes

Findings from writing samples: Transfer across disciplines

Findings from writing samples: Transfer across task types

Summary Learning in the EGAP writing course did transfer to other courses. This involved a variety of learning outcomes, and occurred across a broad range of task types and disciplines. These findings... Learning in the EGAP writing course did transfer to other courses. This involved a variety of learning outcomes, and occurred across a broad range of task types and disciplines. These findings... add in a general way to the body of research that has directly investigated transfer in academic writing instruction. can contribute to discussions of the actual impact of EGAP writing instruction (i.e., that transfer is possible, but that it it not inevitable). extend existing research findings (i.e., that transfer does vary across learning outcomes, and that this depends not just on the general type of learning outcome [e.g., language use] but to some degree on the specific learning outcome in question). suggest that the conditions under which transfer occurs are complex.

Practical implications These findings point to a relevant practical question: In programs and courses where transfer is an instructional goal, would patterns similar to those that emerged in this study be seen as satisfactory? If the answer is “no”... These findings point to a relevant practical question: In programs and courses where transfer is an instructional goal, would patterns similar to those that emerged in this study be seen as satisfactory? If the answer is “no” instructional goals might be revised to better fit transfer patterns (e.g., focus on learning outcomes that are more likely to transfer).... instructional approaches might be modified (e.g., to incorporate teaching-for-transfer techniques like hugging [i.e., making EAP instruction similar to target contexts] and bridging [i.e., pushing students’ learning to abstract levels]).

Limitations and future directions The definition of transfer involved learning that originated in the EGAP writing course but also learning that may have originated elsewhere. Future research might focus more directly on the learning that occurs as a result of EGAP instruction. The definition of transfer involved learning that originated in the EGAP writing course but also learning that may have originated elsewhere. Future research might focus more directly on the learning that occurs as a result of EGAP instruction. The focus was whether transfer occurred. Future research might examine the quality of transfer (i.e., whether it is positive or negative) and conditions that promote it. The focus was whether transfer occurred. Future research might examine the quality of transfer (i.e., whether it is positive or negative) and conditions that promote it. The focus was only EGAP instruction. Future research might examine whether discipline-specific EAP (ESAP) writing instruction can be more, less, or equally effective. The focus was only EGAP instruction. Future research might examine whether discipline-specific EAP (ESAP) writing instruction can be more, less, or equally effective.

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