Terminology Sheet #1: Persuasion & Argumentatio n

Persuasion:  Presentation of ideas or information in order to compel action (emotional) ie. mayoral candidate urging voters to vote for an initiative

Argumentation:  Presentation of ideas or information in order to present a common understanding (rational) ie. columnist who defends a presidential foreign policy

Purposes of Persuasion/Argumentation:  To win agreement  To convince  To provoke emotion  To defend a position  To change behavior  To refute an idea  To arouse interest or awareness  To meditate on a complex issue  To educate  To warn  To remind  To inquire

Audience Types: *** Types of support used often depends on the target audience

Audience Types: 1. Those who have formed opinions, and hold them tightly (Atticus to the jury, Michael Moore, Ann Coulter)

Audience Types: 2. Those who have formed opinions, but recognize another reasonable view (Reagan Democrats, independent voters)

Audience Types: 3. Those who have not formed opinions, and are interested in the issue (undecided voters in the 2012 Presidential election)

Audience Types: 4. Those who have not formed opinions, and are uninterested in the issue (non-registered citizens)

I. Elements of Classical Argumentation

Claim/Assertion/Proposition/ Position/Thesis:  That which the writer wants the reader to accept as reasonable or true

Sub-claims:  That which the writer wants the reader to consider a reasonable point that helps prove the claim

Support/Evidence:  Material used to prove a claim/sub-claim

Concession:  Acknowledging reasonable opposing arguments

Refutation:  Proving those opposing arguments wrong

II. Types of Support/Evidence: ***Material used to prove or explain a claim/opinion

Fact:  Information that can be proven objectively to be true

Statistic:  Information that is an interpretation of numerical data

Interview/Survey/ Questionnaire:  Information gathered first hand from people; a primary source

Experience/Example/ Anecdote:  Information from personal experience supposedly representative of a general pattern

Opinion:  Information based on personal interpretation of facts  Ideally, a position reached after being knowledgeable about all arguments & weighing factors from both sides  Prejudice: position reached after gathering limited information or ignoring one side of an issue

Analogy:  Information comparing easily accepted examples with unfamiliar subjects

Authority:  Information from a person whom the writer attributes expertise on a given subject

Shared Beliefs/Values:  Information readers share and accept as true (allusions to history, Bible)

Causal Relationship:  Writer asserts one thing results from another event or action

Primary Source:  Materials on which other research is based  Created by one with direct personal knowledge of the events being described

Secondary Source:  A work created from primary sources  Performs the function of generalization, analysis, or synthesis of events

III. Argumentative Appeals

Pathos (emotional):  Appeal to audience’s emotions --- (connotative language, manipulation of tone, and figurative language are the best tools)  Weakest form of proof, but often necessary for the audience

Logos (logical):  Appeal to reader’s reason/logic/intelligence --- (statistics, authorities, facts)  Strongest form of proof, but often not very interesting or compelling

Ethos (ethical/credible):  Appeal based on credibility of author --- (image, integrity, expertise, honesty, knowledge, character)

VI. Argumentative Organization/Arrangement

Inductive Reasoning:  Begins with empirical evidence, then works to a claim  Is not proof, but leads to a testable hypothesis  Specific to general; evidence to conclusion; instance to theory; particular to universal (Netflix recommendations)

Inductive Reasoning:

Examples of Inductive Reasoning:  RED SHIFT: I have noticed that every star I observe is moving away from the earth. Therefore, the universe must be expanding.  Every time I ask to borrow the car a day in advance, my parents let me. Therefore, I should ask today if I need to use the car tomorrow.

Deductive Reasoning:  The process of concluding that something must be true because it is an instance of a general principle that is known to be true  Begins with a claim, then works toward evidence, going from general to specific; from conclusion to evidence; theory to instance (Declaration of Independence; prejudice; rational market [invisible hand])

Deductive Reasoning:

Why are these important?  Many arguments in the social sciences are deductive, but the main premise was not created through induction. In deductive arguments, we should always check the validity of the main premise.  Challenges to The Declaration – all men are created equal(?).

Inductive or Deductive?  A red-eyed fruit fly has RNA. A white-eyed fruit fly has RNA. A Hawaiian fruit fly has RNA. Therefore, all fruit flies have RNA.  All organisms have RNA. This fruit fly is an organism. Therefore, this fruit fly has RNA.

V. Forms of Logic

Syllogism:  A form of deductive reasoning consisting of:  a major premise (a general statement of fact),  a minor premise (a particular instance of the major premise),  and a conclusion

Syllogism Example:  All humans are mortal, the major premise;  I am a human, the minor premise;  Therefore, I am mortal, the conclusion.

Enthymeme:  A syllogism with one premise (usually the major premise) left unstated  e.g., Ms. Haxton didn’t eat her hash browns; she must hate potatoes.  Major: ???  Minor: Ms. Haxton was absent today.  Conclusion: Ms. Haxton must be sick.  Major:???  Minor: The Sumerians invented written language.  Conclusion: The Sumerians created the modern world.

Here’s one way to turn an enthymeme into a syllogism:  Create a “because” statement  Because Ms. Haxton didn’t eat her hash browns (minor premise), Ms. Haxton doesn’t like potatoes (conclusion).  Because the Sumerians invented written language, they created the modern world  Change the noun to an indefinite pronoun  Anyone who doesn’t eat hash browns must not like potatoes (major premise).  Whoever invented written language invented the modern world (major premise).

Now you try!  Mr. Woodard heard this the other day - turn it into a syllogism.  50% of all schools in Detroit are still heated with coal. No wonder they have had such an exodus from their public schools.