1. Rhetoric
The Greek Philosopher Aristotle defined rhetoric as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.”

2. Rhetoric
In other words, rhetoric is a thoughtful, reflective activity leading to effective communication, including rational exchange of opposing viewpoints.

3. Rhetoric
The study of the effective use of language

4. Rhetoric is Always Situational
It has context- the occasion or the time and place it was written or spoken
It has purpose- the goal that the speaker or writer wants to achieve

5. Purpose
When we consider a text’s purpose, we can look at whether the speaker is trying to:
Win agreement
Persuade us to take action
Evoke sympathy
Make someone laugh
Inform
Provoke

6. Purpose
When we consider a text’s purpose, we can look at whether the speaker is trying to:
Celebrate
Repudiate
Put forth a proposal
Secure support
Bring about a favorable decision

7. The Writer’s Relationship to their Subject
Writers must first choose their subject and then evaluate what they already know about it, what others have said about it, and what kind of evidence or proof will sufficiently develop their position.

8. The Writer’s Persona
Writers often assume what Aristotle called a persona- the character the writer creates when she or he writes or speaks- depending on the context, purpose, subject, and audience.

9. The Writer’s Relationship to their Audience
A writer should ask themselves:
What does the audience know about the subject?
What is the audience’s attitude toward the subject?
Is there a common ground that is shared between the audience and me?

10. Ethos
Writers and public speakers appeal to an audience’s ethos, or character, to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy.

11. Ethos
The writer’s or speaker’s ethos- expertise and knowledge, experience, training, sincerity, or a combination of these- gives the audience a reason for listening.

12. Logos
Writers and public speakers appeal to an audience’s logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas.

13. Logos
Appealing to logos (Greek, “embodied thought”) means having a clear main idea, or thesis, with specific details, examples, facts, statistical data, or expert testimony as support.

14. Logos
A good way to appeal to logos is to acknowledge a counterargument- that is, to anticipate objections or opposing views.

15. Logos
In acknowledging the counterargument, you agree (concede) that an opposing argument may be true, but then you deny (refute) the validity of all or part of the argument.

16. Logos
This concession and refutation actually strengthens your argument; it appeals to logos by demonstrating that you considered your subject carefully before making your argument.

17. Pathos
Writers and public speakers appeal to an audience’s pathos, or emotion.

18. Pathos
Emotional appeals usually include vivid, concrete description and figurative language. In addition, visual elements often carry a strong emotional appeal.