DNA: The Genetic Material

Orientation  On the top rail, the strand is said to be oriented 5′ to 3′.  The strand on the bottom runs in the opposite direction and is oriented 3′ to 5′. DNA: The Genetic Material

Chromosome Structure  DNA coils around histones to form nucleosomes, which coil to form chromatin fibers.  The chromatin fibers supercoil to form chromosomes that are visible in the metaphase stage of mitosis.

Replication of DNA Semiconservative Replication  Parental strands of DNA separate, serve as templates, and produce DNA molecules that have one strand of parental DNA and one strand of new DNA.

Unwinding  DNA helicase, an enzyme, is responsible for unwinding and unzipping the double helix.  RNA primase adds a short segment of RNA, called an RNA primer, on each DNA strand. Replication of DNA

Base pairing  DNA polymerase continues adding appropriate nucleotides to the chain by adding to the 3′ end of the new DNA strand. Replication of DNA

 One strand is called the leading strand and is elongated as the DNA unwinds.  The other strand of DNA, called the lagging strand, elongates away from the replication fork.  The lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously into small segments, called Okazaki fragments. Replication of DNA

Joining  DNA polymerase removes the RNA primer and fills in the place with DNA nucleotides.  DNA ligase links the two sections. Replication of DNA

Comparing DNA Replication in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes  Eukaryotic DNA unwinds in multiple areas as DNA is replicated.  In prokaryotes, the circular DNA strand is opened at one origin of replication.

DNA, RNA, and Protein Central Dogma  RNA  Contains the sugar ribose and the base uracil  Usually is single stranded

Messenger RNA (mRNA)  Long strands of RNA nucleotides that are formed complementary to one strand of DNA Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)  Associates with proteins to form ribosomes in the cytoplasm Transfer RNA (tRNA)  Smaller segments of RNA nucleotides that transport amino acids to the ribosome DNA, RNA, and Protein

 DNA is unzipped in the nucleus and RNA polymerase binds to a specific section where an mRNA will be synthesized. Transcription  Through transcription, the DNA code is transferred to mRNA in the nucleus. DNA, RNA, and Protein

RNA Processing  The code on the DNA is interrupted periodically by sequences that are not in the final mRNA.  Intervening sequences are called introns.  Remaining pieces of DNA that serve as the coding sequences are called exons. DNA, RNA, and Protein

The Code  Experiments during the 1960s demonstrated that the DNA code was a three-base code.  The three-base code in DNA or mRNA is called a codon. DNA, RNA, and Protein

Translation  In translation, tRNA molecules act as the interpreters of the mRNA codon sequence.  At the middle of the folded strand, there is a three-base coding sequence called the anticodon.  Each anticodon is complementary to a codon on the mRNA. DNA, RNA, and Protein

One Gene— One Enzyme  The Beadle and Tatum experiment showed that one gene codes for one enzyme. We now know that one gene codes for one polypeptide.

Gene Regulation and Mutation Prokaryote Gene Regulation  Ability of an organism to control which genes are transcribed in response to the environment  An operon is a section of DNA that contains the genes for the proteins needed for a specific metabolic pathway.  Operator  Promoter  Regulatory gene  Genes coding for proteins

The Trp Operon Gene Regulation and Mutation

The Lac Operon Gene Regulation and Mutation

Eukaryote Gene Regulation  Controlling transcription  Transcription factors ensure that a gene is used at the right time and that proteins are made in the right amounts  The complex structure of eukaryotic DNA also regulates transcription. Gene Regulation and Mutation

Hox Genes  Hox genes are responsible for the general body pattern of most animals. Gene Regulation and Mutation

RNA Interference  RNA interference can stop the mRNA from translating its message. Gene Regulation and Mutation

Mutations  A permanent change that occurs in a cell’s DNA is called a mutation.  Types of mutations  Point mutation  Insertion  Deletion Gene Regulation and Mutation

Molecular Genetics Chapter 12

Protein Folding and Stability  Substitutions also can lead to genetic disorders.  Can change both the folding and stability of the protein Gene Regulation and Mutation

Causes of Mutation  Can occur spontaneously  Chemicals and radiation also can damage DNA.  High-energy forms of radiation, such as X rays and gamma rays, are highly mutagenic. Gene Regulation and Mutation

Body-cell v. Sex-cell Mutation  Somatic cell mutations are not passed on to the next generation.  Mutations that occur in sex cells are passed on to the organism’s offspring and will be present in every cell of the offspring. Gene Regulation and Mutation

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D CDQ 1 A. Watson and Crick B. Mendel C. Hershey and Chase D. Avery Which scientist(s) definitively proved that DNA transfers genetic material? Chapter Diagnostic Questions

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D CDQ 2 Chapter Diagnostic Questions A. ligase B. Okazaki fragments C. polymerase D. helicase Name the small segments of the lagging DNA strand.

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D CDQ 3 Chapter Diagnostic Questions A. It contains the sugar ribose. B. It contains the base uracil. C. It is single-stranded. D. It contains a phosphate. Which is not true of RNA?

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 1 A. carbohydrate B. DNA C. lipid D. protein The experiments of Avery, Hershey and Chase provided evidence that the carrier of genetic information is _______. Formative Questions

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 2 A. A—G and C—T B. A—T and C—G C. C—A and G—T D. C—U and A—G What is the base-pairing rule for purines and pyrimidines in the DNA molecule? Formative Questions

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 3 Formative Questions A.chromatin and histones B. DNA and protein C. DNA and lipids D. protein and centromeres What are chromosomes composed of?

1.A 2.B FQ 4 The work of Watson and Crick solved the mystery of how DNA works as a genetic code. A. True B. False Formative Questions

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 5 Formative Questions A. DNA ligase B. DNA polymerase C. hilicase D. RNA primer Which is not an enzyme involved in DNA replication?

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 6 Which shows the basic chain of events in all organisms for reading and expressing genes? A. DNA  RNA  protein B. RNA  DNA  protein C. mRNA  rRNA  tRNA D. RNA processing  transcription  translation Formative Questions

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 7 Formative Questions In the RNA molecule, uracil replaces _______. A. adenine B. cytosine C. purine D. thymine

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 8 Formative Questions Which diagram shows messenger RNA (mRNA)? A. B. D. C

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 9 Formative Questions What characteristic of the mRNA molecule do scientists not yet understand? A. intervening sequences in the mRNA molecule called introns B. the original mRNA made in the nucleus called the pre-mRNA C. how the sequence of bases in the mRNA molecule codes for amino acids D. the function of many adenine nucleotides at the 5′ end called the poly-A tail

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 10 Why do eukaryotic cells need a complex control system to regulate the expression of genes? A. All of an organism’s cells transcribe the same genes. B. Expression of incorrect genes can lead to mutations. C. Certain genes are expressed more frequently than others are. D. Different genes are expressed at different times in an organism’s lifetime. Formative Questions

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 11 Formative Questions Which type of gene causes cells to become specialized in structure in function? A. exon B. Hox gene C. intron D. operon

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D FQ 13 Formative Questions Which is the most highly mutagenic? A. chemicals in food B. cigarette smoke C. ultraviolet radiation D. X rays

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D CAQ 1 Look at the following figure. Identify the proteins that DNA first coils around. Chapter Assessment Questions A. chromatin fibers B. chromosomes C. histones D. nucleosome

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D CAQ 2 Chapter Assessment Questions A. They determine size. B. They determine body plan. C. They determine sex. D. They determine number of body segments. Explain how Hox genes affect an organism.

Explain the difference between body-cell and sex-cell mutation. Chapter Assessment Questions Answer: A mutagen in a body cell becomes part of the of the genetic sequence in that cell and in future daughter cells. The cell may die or simply not perform its normal function. These mutations are not passed on to the next generation. When mutations occur in sex cells, they will be present in every cell of the offspring. CAQ 3

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D STP 1 What does this diagram show about the replication of DNA in eukaryotic cells? Standardized Test Practice A. DNA is replicated only at certain places along the chromosome. B. DNA replication is both semicontinuous and conservative. C. Multiple areas of replication occur along the chromosome at the same time. D. The leading DNA strand is synthesized discontinuously.

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D STP 2 Standardized Test Practice A. mRNA processing B. protein synthesis C. transcription D. translation What is this process called?

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D STP 3 Standardized Test Practice What type of mutation results in this change in the DNA sequence? A. deletion B. frameshift C. insertion D. substitution TTCAGG TTCTGG

1.A 2.B 3.C 4.D STP 4 Standardized Test Practice How could RNA interference be used to treat diseases such as cancer and diabetes? A. by activating genes to produce proteins that can overcome the disease B. by interfering with DNA replication in cells affected by the disease C. by preventing the translation of mRNA into the genes associated with the disease D. by shutting down protein synthesis in the cells of diseased tissues

1.A 2.B STP 5 Standardized Test Practice The structure of a protein can be altered dramatically by the exchange of a single amino acid for another. A. True B. False