Propositional Density - a new measure of oral fluency? The role of small words and fillers in oral fluency Giles Witton-Davies Lancaster University & National Taiwan University giles@ntu.edu.tw

Propositional Density – a summary The percentage of words devoted to the essential proposition of an utterance. High propositional density (>90%) = most words devoted to the proposition Low propositional density (<90%) = more words used to link, evaluate, react, or frame the proposition. Propositional density correlates with fluency

Task Based Language Teaching Focus on oral tasks in the classroom contributes to speaking fluency. Key measures of fluency, accuracy and complexity in studies of task-based learning (Foster & Skehan 1999, Tavakoli and Skehan 2005). 1. What is fluency? 2. How can fluency be measured? 3. How can learners increase their fluency?

Fluency ....an impression on the listener’s part that the psycho- linguistic processes of speech planning and speech production are functioning easily and efficiently (Lennon 1990)‏. ...the rapid, smooth, accurate, lucid, and efficient translation of thought or communicative intention into language under the temporal constraints of on-line processing (Lennon 2000).‏ Temporal measures: AR (articulation rate), SR (speech rate), MLR (mean length of run), PTR (phonation time ratio), ratio of internal pauses, RR (repair rate). The listener: Smooth? Lucid? Coherence and cohesion?

Formulaic sequences Sinclair's (1991) idiom principle: certain combinations of words are favoured over other, equally grammatically correct combinations. Pawley & Syder (1983): key role of formulaic expressions in native speaker fluency and idiomaticity. Wray 2002: formulaic sequences are stored, retrieved and produced whole Formulaic sequences require less attention on the part of the speaker, thus enhancing fluency.

Small words Hasselgreen’s (2004) definition: small words and phrases, occurring with high frequency in the spoken language, that help to keep our speech flowing, yet do not contribute essentially to the message itself.

Small words Hasselgreen 2004: smallwords (and, but, so, well) and their role in fluency. Small words: 1. ...aid fluent production, allowing the speaker time to plan, and replacing filled pauses. 2. ...make speech sound smooth and to the listener. 3. ...provide cues to facilitate ostensive /inferential communication (Sperber & Wilson 1995) and indicate the relevance of utterances.

Examples of smallwords from Hasselgreen (19 in total)‏ well right all right okay oh, ah you know I think I mean like sort/ kind of a bit just or something not really & everything/stuff/that I know you see I see

Framing Bygate and Samuda (2005): “Framing” language – any elaboration beyond the “bare bones” of a narrative. More framing language when task repeated. Task repetition allows for more elaboration and comment, and for greater cohesion. Much of this framing involves complete clauses and gives new information. Framing will still require the speaker's full attention

Non-propositional words 1. ... do not affect the ideational or propositional meaning of an utterance. 2. ... carry instead evaluative, interpersonal or textual meanings and functions. 3. ... may relate to the framing, ordering, and other linking between utterances and parts of utterances. 4. ... may relate to the speaker's evaluation of an utterance, or the speaker's reaction to a previous utterance.

Rationale for definition of non-propositional words 1. They can be used as fillers, allowing time for planning of the next words, clause or unit. 2. In their absence, speakers are likely to need to pause (with either silent or filled pauses). 3. They may allow the speaker to produce utterances accurately, with no need for repair. 4. They may enable the speaker to speak more rapidly.

Key tests for (non-) propositional words 1. They can be omitted with no change of propositional or ideational meaning 2. They can be omitted without creating a need to change the remaining utterance syntactically. 3. If they are removed, the utterance will still be complete. 4. They modify the whole clause or utterance rather than single words or phrases.

Examples of non-propositional or small words in this study after that and because but for example I think (that)‏ just OK maybe no right so still then too well yes, yeh

Propositional language Whole speech units “I agree with you”, “Yes” /“No” Repaired words playing no role in final utterance. Non-nativelike use of words, e.g. “yeh” at end of clauses. Non-words such as “oh” or “uhun”. Words that cannot be omitted because they are grammatically and semantically necessary Explicit reference to times, causes, contrast, interaction and evaluation .

The Data 17 Taiwanese university students at English Language and Literature Dept. Year 1 first term and year 4 last term at university. Students work in pairs on same narrative and discussion tasks. Transcriptions made using AS units (Foster et al 2000), pauses of over 25 msecs measured to nearest 10 msec. using Transcriber software.

Analysis Non-propositional words marked in transcripts and counted. Percentage calculated of non-propositional words as compared to total words. Non-propositional words per unit/ per clause also tried.

Correlations with Propositional Density (1)‏ Prop. density Pruned SR -0.574 SR Speech -0.606 Pruned AR -0.584 AR Articulation -0.529

Correlations with Propositional Density (2)‏ -0.349 -0.432 -0.360 -0.407 Proposit- ional density PhTR Pruned MLR MLR (Mean length of run)‏ RR (Repair Rate)‏

Results Strong correlation with propositional density : speech rate, articulation rate, pruned speech rate Medium correlation with propositional density: repair rate, mean length of run, phonation time ratio Weak correlation with propositional density: percentage of internal pauses

Discussion Correlation ≠ causation Speakers who use more non-propositional language (smallwords): speak faster produce longer runs pause less often pause for less time overall

Unresolved questions 1. Why do fluent speakers use more smallwords? 2. Why do less fluent speakers use fewer smallwords? 3. Do smallwords require any less attention than other words and phrases? 4. Can smallwords be used as a short-cut to fluency?

An idea Chaining versus integration in speech (Pawley and Syder, 1983). Chaining involves linking of clauses without subordinate clauses, integration links clauses grammatically through subordination. Ejzenberger (2000): chaining associated with greater fluency, integration with reduced fluency in the speech of both high and low fluency EFL speakers.

Conclusions There is a relationship between fluency and the amount of non-propositional language / the use of smallwords. Non-propositional language MAY contribute to fluent production (on the part of the speaker) and to the perception of fluency (on the part of the listener).

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