East Asian Drama (Volume D)

Asian Literature: Development Interest in short, lyrical poetry Epic poetry and drama did not play an influential role in the development of early East Asian Literature (these forms directly influenced the literature of Western Antiquity); instead, short lyrical poetry was prized for delivering public opinion, moral education, and personal expression. The image depicts a Noh stage in the Hiroshima Prefecture of Japan, Itsukushima Shrine, Miyajima. Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Characteristics Dance dramas (combining dance, music, chant, and singing) Role types Fixed musical repertoire Anonymous authorship (due to oral transmission) Vigorous and lengthy training for performers Spoken drama, concert music, and ballet became separate genres in the West. They could be combined, as in opera; however, unlike Western opera, where each work has been authored by a musical composer, Chinese “opera” relies on a fixed repertoire of tunes, not individual scores. East Asian drama also relies on role-types, such as the beautiful woman, the scoundrel, the fool, and the demon. Korean p’ansori consists of only five anonymous pieces, based on a long process of oral transmission and re-enactment. Arduous training is required of actors in East Asian theater, due to the required skills involving dance, singing, playing music, and chanting.

Chinese Variety Plays Zaju (Northern) Chuanqi (Southern) “Tales of the marvelous” Ming Dynasty Qu-pai Stylization Minimal scenery Interwoven plots The Peach Blossom belongs to the Chinese tradition of Southern drama known as Kunqu opera or chuanqi (“tales of the marvelous”), which was most prominent during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and adopted formally for theater with Liang Chenyu’s work, Laundering the Silken Yarn in 1560. These long music-dance-word works consisted of 30–50 acts, including chanted prose dialogue and sung arias (qu-pai); each word was accompanied by a gesture or stylized movement based on strict rules. The wording of Kunqu is an artificial language consisting of modified Mandarin blended with local dialect, and meticulously set to musical melody. Ornate costumes and makeup, minimal scenery and props, and stylized dance were formal features, and the entire work was comprised of multiple plot lines that corresponded with and crossed each other (compare this to motif in Western opera). Image: Grave for playwright Kong Shangren in the Confucian Cemetery, Qufu Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Confucianism: The Peach Blossom Fan Perfection through personal growth, communal experience Righteousness, altruism, propriety Attention to social order, loyalty Respect for elders Self-governance Confucian beliefs are presented throughout the play, particularly in the indoctrination of the “Way” (Tao), to actively strive for perfection. As an ethical system, Confucianism subscribes to the humanist belief that humans can be educated and perfected through personal growth and communal experience. Righteousness (yi), altruism (ren, the ethical practice of reciprocity), and propriety (li, rituals, customs and rites, also including education, music, and cultural etiquette) are emphasized, to the extent that a person is expected to sacrifice his life to uphold these morals. Social harmony is achieved only when individuals recognize their standing in the social order, by demonstrating loyalty, respecting elders, and receiving benevolence through mutuality; the focus on self-governance (one cannot govern others before governing oneself) is paramount.

Japanese Noh Drama “Noh” = talent, skill, accomplishments Patronage by shoguns, the military leaders Kabuki and puppet theater Hereditary performance Buddhist chanting Imperial court song and dance Limited actors Austere, undecorated stage Stylization Performance of Noh is a skill passed along family generations: actors and musicians learn from their parents or masters and undergo strenuous training from early childhood. Noh emerged in the fourteenth century, but its basic elements stemmed from Buddhist chanting, the music and dances of the Japanese imperial court and from variety entertainment including acrobatics and mime. The dramas contain a lead actor, supporting actor, chorus, stage attendants, and occasional child actors. Noh playwrights often extract moments from famous literary works, exploring strong emotions. Noh is performed on an austere, undecorated stage; actors sometimes wear masks and move at a slow and choreographed pace (stylization, for example, in the gesture of weeping), and their performance is accompanied by a flutist and percussionists.

Noh Masks In Noh, except for child actors and actors playing living adult characters, actors impersonating ghosts, gods, or demons wear masks. Because most masks have enigmatic expressions, their features are open to various interpretations. Image Credits: Wikimedia Commons

Atsumori “As the Teaching that enjoins the Good is seldom found, birth in the human realm quickly ends, like a spark from a flint. This we never knew, nor understood that vigour is followed by decline. Lords of the land, we were, but caused much grief; blinded by wealth, we never knew our Pride” (Atsumori, Act 2: 14). The Noh warrior play focuses on the death of the young Heike warrior Atsumori, revisiting the final encounter between Atsumori (now a ghost) and Naozane, a Genji supporter turned monk. Readers should make note of the minimalist background and focus on the themes of death, salvation, and intense emotions.

Kabuki Theater Stylization, gesture Make-up Urbanization Social classes Kabuki theater combines highly stylized gestures, dance, drama, and elaborate make-up. During the Edo Period, commercial culture expanded, as did urbanization, with four social classes: samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants. Actors and entertainers were considered outcasts, together with prostitutes and beggars. This image depicts the Interior View of the kabuki Theater Kawarazaki-za (woodblock, 1797-1806; in the Brooklyn Museum Collection) Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Monzaemon: Bunraku, Puppet Theater Popular art form Puppets Joruri chanting Shamisen Voice training Puppet theater (Joruri or Bunraku) and Kabuki (stylized theater) arose during the Edo Period, and productions were staged for commoners and therefore often addressed common concerns and contemporary events. This is a sharp contrast from the earlier Noh Theater, which focused on classical literature and themes, and was generally sponsored by the wealthy as official state theater. Puppeteers appeared in full view on stage, dressed in black, and the puppets were technically designed with movable facial features and the ability to wield objects. The puppet theater is comprised of puppets-puppeteers, shamisen music, and joruri chanting; chanting is the primary feature as the chanter performs the entire play, requiring great range of voice and character acting. The image is of a contemporary puppet theater performance in Osaka.

From the Love Suicides at Amijima “Poor creatures, though they would discover today their destiny in the Sutra of Cause and Effect, tomorrow the gossip of the world will scatter like blossoms the scandal of Kamiya Jihei’s love suicide, and, carved in the cherry wood, his story to the last detail will be printed in illustrated sheets” (Act 3, Scene 2). As the footnote reads, the sheets mentioned here featured current scandals such as lovers’ suicides. The “Cause and Effect” refers to a Buddhist sacred scripture that states “If you wish to know the past cause, look at the present effect; if you wish to know the future effect, look at the present cause.” The drama’s denouement includes a brief diversion or journey (michiyuki) in which happy and romantic experiences are revisited before the suicide event. Monzaemon Chikamatsu had already addressed the lover’s suicide as a theme in an earlier play, The Love Suicides at Sonezaki, which was also based on a courtesan and her relationship with a young, orphaned merchant.

P’ansori: Korean narrative drama Shaman song, folktales Percussive art form Sorikkun Gosu Chuimsae (verbal sounds) Audience interaction Use of hand props P’ansori evolved from shaman song and folktales, and its performance bears strong resemblance to the performance of epic poems in ancient Greece; generally, the drama is characterized as a percussion music form. A single male performer (sorikkun) recounts tales, alternating singing with speaking in verse and accompanied by a drummer (gosu) who gives not only rhythmic drum beats but also verbal sounds (chuimsae, both meaningless or as phrases of encouragement); the audience also plays an integral role by contributing verbal sounds (chuimsae) during the performance. The sorikkun usually holds a fan or handkerchief and acts through a combination of song, recitation, and gesture. The image depicts a p’ansori performance at the Busan Cultural Center in Busan, South Korea (May 2006). Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

from The Song of Ch’un-Hyang “What was my crime? I have not stolen government grain. Why was I beaten so fiercely? I am not a murderer. Why am I put in the cangue and the stocks? I have not broken the laws. Why have I been bound hand and foot? I have not committed adultery. I will take the waters of the rivers for ink and the blue sky for my paper; and protest my innocence, a petition to the heavenly king” (87-8). Corruption of the elite class in the play parallels the conflict arising during the Choson Dynasty (1392–1910), during which it became increasingly difficult for common citizens to partake in the recruitment process to become yangban (military and civilian ruling elites). The dynasty rejected Buddhism in favor of Confucianism; because the monarch’s focus should be on benevolent rule, the yangban was able to interfere with the ruler’s decisions and administrative efforts. Generally, Confucianism emphasizes virtue, female chastity, and fidelity; the Choson approach to Confucianism rendered women subordinate and invisible, although more attention was devoted to ancestor worship and filial duty. The Song, in spite of its happy ending, mocks the yangban culture by emphasizing that a courtesan and an aristocrat can achieve a respectable relationship.

Influences on Western Writers William Butler Yeats Ezra Pound Bertolt Brecht As mentioned on Slide 3, spoken drama, concert music, and ballet became separate genres in the West. Asian drama deeply influenced some Western writers of the Modern period, including Yeats and Pound, who were interested in the “silence” or gesture aspects of Asian drama as representative of the Modernist aesthetic. The professor may consider discussing Brecht’s play, The Good Woman of Setzuan (volume F, 434), which was set in China and inspired from Brecht’s attendance at the stylized performances of the Chinese actor Mei Lan-fang in Moscow (and by Noh and Kabuku theater).

Test Your Knowledge Chinese, Japanese, and Korean drama share all of the following similarities except _____. a. they depend on stock characters b. works are usually anonymous c. actors begin performing as young children d. they combine singing, chant, dance, and music Answer: c Feedback: Performers in traditional East Asian drama undergo a rigorous apprenticeship, often lasting many years before they take the stage. This arduous and lengthy training now offers little appeal to modern performers, which means that traditional East Asian drama is continually at risk of becoming a lost art.

Test Your Knowledge Which of the following were early supporters of Japanese Noh drama? a. samurai b. royalty c. commoners d. shoguns Answer: d   Feedback: Japanese Noh drama, like Atsumori (NAWOL Vol C, pg 3), received important patronage from Japanese shoguns (military leaders).

Test Your Knowledge East Asian literary traditions began with a focus on ___________. a. courtly romances b. drama c. lyric poetry d. epic Answer: c   Feedback: East Asian literature developed from early interest in short, lyrical poetry. This contrasts with early Greek literature that focused on epic poetry (like Homer’s Odyssey and Iliad; see NAWOL Vol A) and drama (such as Sophocles’ Oedipus the King; see NAWOL Vol A).

Test Your Knowledge Which of the following is a famous modern Western author who was deeply influenced by East Asian drama? a. William Blake b. Joseph Conrad c. John Keats d. Bertolt Brecht Answer: d   Feedback: Many Western authors, including William Butler Yeats and Ezra Pound, were deeply influenced by East Asian drama (find Yeats in NAWOL, Vol F).

This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for The Norton Anthology Of World Literature