Rise and fall of Classical Empires Compare and Contrast Rise and fall of Classical Empires

Necessary preconditions for the rise of empires State-level Government High Agricultural Potential in the area An environmental Mosaic Several small states with no clearly dominant state (power vacuum) Mutual Antagonisms among those states Adequate military resources

State-level Government Rome China India Republic Senate Aristocrats Consuls Had executive power All citizen assemblies Built on aristocratic landlords expanding out from a city-state Kept most of the Qin centralized government in place Emergence of standardization Decentralized Regionalism Aryan Invaders Vedas and Upanishads Large estates ruled by kings Encourage tight levels of village organization – organized village defenses and regulate property Varnas – social classes

High Agricultural Potential in the Area Rome China India Wheat Grapes Cattle Wheat Millet Pigs Cotton Wool Calico Chief revenue – tax on agriculture

An Environmental Mosaic Rome China India Alps Mediterranean Sea Forests Tiber and other rivers Hills Tianshan Mountains Yellow and Yangtze Rivers Loess Soil Pacific Ocean Indus and Ganges Rivers Thar Desert Deccan Plateau

Several Small States with no Clearly Dominant State (Power Vacuum) Rome China India Rome and other city-states on the Italian peninsula Surrounding Mediterranean states Greek States; Judea; Egypt; Carthage; Cyprus; Gaul; Sicily; Spain; etc. Fall of Zhou Warring States period 480 BCE – 221 BCE Confucius – wandering scholar Idealized strong rulers and the consolidation of power Sought to establish norms for all life Relationships and importance of art, music, calligraphy 221-207 BCE – Qin Single law code, uniform tax system, appointed governors to each district who exercised military and legal power in name of emperor Elixir of immortality Broke into smaller states Regional leadership/rule Dravidians

Mutual Antagonisms Among these States Rome China India Rivalry between pastoralists in hills and agriculturalists in plains Perceived threats led to wars and conquest which increased the length of borders and led to more perceived threats Warring States period before Qin unification Perceived threats led to wars and conquest which increased the length of borders and led to more perceived threats Indo-European Invasions Aryans Kushans

Adequate Military Resources Rome China India Soldiers first recruited only from peasant class on Italian peninsula Population inexhaustible Soldiers recruited from peasant class within the entire empire Population inexhaustible Ability to make metal weapons Social system extremely strict –particular in choosing – warrior caste Relatively peaceful Powerful army maintained tight control

The Primary Reason a State Succeeded in Empire Building An ideology supporting personal identification within the state, empire, conquest, militarism Patriarchy Retained and built on key achievements of earlier societies Did not have to: Reinvent money, idea of codes of law, scientific interests

Ideology Rome China India Hinduism as a uniting force “Republic” based on citizenship of free men Citizenship ensured loyalty to the state and brought taxes into the state treasury Emperor-dictators had to support the idea of the republic and pretend to follow what the Senate, council of elder men decreed Development of bureaucracy helped run the empire Militaristic Legalism developed by Shi Huangdi continued, then softened by the Confucian system of government based on ethics, meritocracy, and concept of the Mandate of Heaven Development of bureaucracy helped run the empire Tribute system for foreign relations Hinduism as a uniting force Enforcing strict social system Caste

Methods of Political Control Government Organization Social Organization Military Organization Economic Organization State sponsored religions/philosophies

Government Organization Rome China India Emperor Preserved the senate but it was meaningless Local autonomy and tolerance with common laws Had to pay taxes Political intensity and localism No single or cohesive set of political institutions Civil Service Centralized bureaucracy 1st Civil Service Exam Clearest unity and focus to society Divinely sanctioned Mandate of Heaven/Dynastic Cycle Political culture Pay tribute to Xiongnu Standardized Language Decentralized Regionalism Geography made full political unity difficult Political structure existed – less cohesive and important Maurya 16 powerful regional states – some monarchies – some republics 322 BCE – Chandragupta Maurya – unified much of subcontinent – substantial bureaucracy – postal service and roads Ashoka – all but southern tip

Government Organization Rome China India No standardized language Sanskrit was used by the elite only Gupta No individual influencial leaders Preferred to negotiate with local princesses and intermarry with their families Claimed appointment by gods No extensive bureaucracy Local leaders – differ to Gupta dominance Stationed a personal representative to watch ruler’s court to ensure loyalty Spread uniform law codes Little formal political theory Citizenship to elites Laws applied to all Latin did not replace other written languages 100 CE – Pax Romana Peace, strength, road building, law, cities, trade Organized research in astronomy and historical records Strong local units never disappeared Relied heavily on tight knit patriarchal families, village authority surmounted family rule, landed nobles provided courts of justice and organized military troops

State Sponsored Religion/Philosophy Rome China India Polytheistic Division between upper class and popular belief Low class wanted a spiritual passion, “mystery religion”, secret rituals, fellowship State sponsored festivals to honor gods and goddesses Civic religious festivals Encouraged loyalty to the state Tolerance if it does not conflict with loyalty Christianity Missionaries 100 CE Christians were initially persecuted as undermining the state Opposed to slavery Absence of a single religion (limited monumental building) Ancestor Veneration Confucianism – filial piety Virtue of respect for one's father, elders, and ancestors Polytheistic Hinduism – key religious values to cement civilization Patriarchal Gives hope through incarnation Buddha opposes Offered something not so rigid Better life for women Buddhism spread by Ashoka using Stupas

Social Organization Rome China India Caste system based on skin color (initially from Aryan invaders) Created the idea of racial division by placing the lighter skinned people in the higher social classes Untouchable class – unskilled – not slaves but given jobs the rest of the population did not want Peasants less constrained by landlords trying to tke their land – village controlled most of the land Emperor, Large Estate owners, merchants, peasants, slaves Greek slaves – valued as household servants and tutors Could be better than “free” life of a poor peasant Social class based on literacy Lower classes were not able to take the Civil Service Exam Higher classes were knowledgeably qualified to take this exam and become bureaucrats Mean people Unskilled Not slaves but given the jobs that the rest of the population did not want Transport Performing artists Punished more harshly for crime Had to wear a green scarf to identify themselves Used culture to justify social inequality – Confucianism Some household slaves – not depended on for agriculture

Social Organization Rome China India Warrior governing class and priestly class Traders and farmers Common laborers Untouchables Inequalities between men and women Inequalities between rich and poor Elaboration of caste system – jati Regulates social relationships and work roles Outright slavery avoided 1st loyalty to the caste Wealthy land owners Slaves – 1/3 of the population Inequalities between men and women Inequalities between rich and poor “Bread and Circuses” Inequalities between men and women Inequalities between rich and poor Tenant Farmers Corvee – state required service Built roads, walls, canals

Cultural Organization Rome China India Valued active participation in politics for the “good life” Contributed to a sense of political interest and responsibility Cultural achievements involved a small percentage of the population Demonstrate power and achievement Roads, aqueducts, sewer systems, colosseums Buildings of great size, domes added to rectangular buildings Importance of family and local units Confucianism Invention of paper Gupta supported Hinduism, math, and science “Golden Age” Concept of zero Numbers Pi Circumference of Earth Earth’s rotation Plastic Surgery Predicted eclipses

Military Organization Rome China India Citizens served in the military 63 CE – forced dissolution of Jewish State after a local rebellion – Romans took over Need for slaves encouraged military conquest Assimilation – expansion – send farmers to colonize and set up schools Local landlords Maurya Large armies Chariots Elephant borne troops Kushan invaders overthrow and adopt Buddhism 220 CE Kushan collapse

Economic Organization Rome China India Agriculture is important Latifunda – Agricultural Estate Based on slave labor and tenant farmers and paid laborers Free farmers could not always compete Silver coins Production technology lagged Government regulated some branches of commerce to secure vital supplies of grain Public works Dominated Mediterranean trade – traded with Egypt and Africa Agriculture is the most important Canals are built to transport grains from one end of the empire to the other Government control of salt and iron industries Standardized currency, weights, measures – facilitated trade Silk production Roads to promote trade Silk Road Public works canal Regulate agricultural supplies – storing grain and rice Agricultural innovations Damns, Canals, Ox-drawn plows, collar, Iron mining pulleys, winding gear, and lamps, water powered mills Increased trade Crossroads of trades routes Indian Ocean is a critical trade route Had the widest economic reach Ashoka – improved trade and communication; extensive road network with wells and rest stops

Major Rewards of Empire Economic rewards, reaped especially in the early years and redistributed to the elite and often to all levels of citizenry Population increase, often supported by the government and its ideology

Economic Rewards Rome China India Citizenship led to recognition of place in society Possible government and military positions of leadership Opportunities for merchants Roman-style urbanism for new towns and cities Land for supporters Expansion of established cities Creation of new capital storehouses for food when supplies fell Advances in arts and sciences, mathematics, iron use Trade increased

Population Increase Rome China India Population increased as new lands with more people were conquered Population increased as new land was colonized by Chinese farmers Population increased with prosperity and young marriage of women

Empires Fall Because Ideology of expansion and conquest fueled attempts at conquest beyond practical limits Failure to continue conquest indefinitely and to continue to bring home its economic fruits eroded faith in the ideology that supported the empire Revolutions toppled the empire

Internal Problems Facing Empire Rome China India Ability to control local princes decreased Tendency to dissolve into political fragmentation Invaders integrated into the warrior caste – new ruling group of regional princes Population decreases Upper class Romans stop having babies Becomes difficult to collect taxes Plagues spread from international trading (China) decimates population Cultural life decreases – new knowledge is not happening Confucian intellectual tendency – became less creative Central governments control became diminished as bureaucrats became corrupt Factionalism at court Taxes increased Free peasants began to work for local landlords Greater concentration of land ownership

Internal Problems Facing Empire Rome China India Buddhism decreases Hinduism increase ++Economic prosperity does continue High, uneven taxes Factions 235-284 CE “Barracks Emperors” As many generals as emperors Patriotism decreases Decentralization of political and economic authority Inflation Decreased money for defense Peasants had to sell kids Disease epidemic – ½ population dies Spread of Buddhism Trade decreases because it is not safe Conflicts with people of the north - Xiongnu

Attempts to Fix Problems Rome China India Confucian intellectual tendency – became less creative Central governments control became diminished as bureaucrats became corrupt Taxes increased Free peasants began to work for local landlords Peasants had to sell kids Disease epidemic – ½ population dies Spread of Buddhism Trade decreases because it is not safe Ability to control local princes decreased Tendency to dissolve into political fragmentation Invaders integrated into the warrior caste – new ruling group of regional princes Rajput Buddhism decreases Hinduism increase ++Economic prosperity does continue Diocletian – tries to reverse the tide (284-305) Splits empire in half Persecutes Christians Constantine (306 -313-337) Creates a second capital – Constantinople Adopts Christianity in an attempt to unify the empire Regulating the economy reduced economic initiative and decreased production

Impractical Conquest Rome China India Military became less desirable as soldiers lost land Difficulty recruiting effective loyal armies – loyal to their leader – hire mercenaries (Germanic Soldiers) Recruits of “foreigners” to keep numbers of soldiers up led to dissatisfaction Tax revenues fell Government failed to pay soldiers fully Safety within empire and borders declined “barbarians” continued to demand more concessions in the tribute system Recruits of “foreigners” to keep numbers of soldiers up led to dissatisfaction Tax revenues fell Governments failed to pay soldiers fully Safety within empire and borders declined Military unable to hold out against constant attacks Lost many lives Fighting between regional rulers for territory

Failure to Continue Conquest Rome China India Tenant farmers looked to landowners of Latifundas for security Soldiers’ loyalty shifted to generals and officers rather than the state Tenant farmers looked to landowners for security Bandits and rebels attacked government officials and facilities Local princes refuse to work together

External Problems Facing Empire Rome China India Germanic Invaders being pushed into the empire to avoid Attila and the Huns Visigoths, Vandals, Ostrogoths Outside Invasion Huns Kush invade and topple the Mauyran White Huns invade and topple the Gupta

Revolutions Topple Rome China India Germanic tribes sacked cities near borders and finally Rome Political instability within Rome itself Yellow Turban Rebellions – Daoist leaders Soldier rebellions Peasant rebellions Political instability White Huns invaded and over ran the empire Politically decentralized Unwillingness to help each other

Severity of Collapse Rome China India Regional princes dominate Political power is not the only “glue” that holds a civilization together No religious unity – Christianity became official religion during 400 CE – too late to be a unifying force Political and military power failed Migration of Huns caused pressure on Rome to move out as they expanded Confucianism lost much of its credibility Many people turned towards Daoism and Buddhism instead Fall had less impact because the philosophies went beyond China’s Politics and rulers Chinese civilization continued to reassert power after 135 years of chaos Regional princes dominate Gradual decline of Buddhism – spreads to China

Severity of Collapse Contd. Rome China India When one trade route weakened – Silk Road- all were affected Diseases spread People were killed Money used to build churches could have been used to maintain the Roman Empire Death rates increased in the wealthy class because water was being transported through lead pipes 220 CE – 589 CE Regional kingdoms, warlords, disorder White Huns invaded and over ran the empire Politically decentralized Unwillingness to help each other

Severity of Collapse Contd. Rome China India Unable to keep political grasp amongst vast land Disputes between large landowners and peasants Rise of Islam in areas close to Rome created tension and a new movement of religiously driven and bound forces that would eventually become a dominant power in parts of Europe, ME, Asia Monetary trouble was also a contributing factor – the central Roman state collapsed because the migrants forcibly stripped it of the tax base which it used to fund its armies 589-618 CE - Sui Dynasty Rajput dynasties dominated northern India The many petty Rajput kingdoms there were among the main obstacles to the complete Muslim domination of Hindu India

Differences of the Falls Rome China India Western Roman Empire totally collapsed Much more commerce in Roman Empire Proportion of slaves in Roman Empire hurt the economy; less productive but more people to feed System took some time to recover - Common culture (Chinese script, Confucianism, assimilation) prevented as drastic a collapse as in Rome Economy was based more completely on crop agriculture; cities and commerce played a lesser role in China than in the West India’s system was not based on political unity (Hinduism remained

Effects of the Falls Rome China India Europe dissolved into various political systems involving kings, with little authority, nobles, knights, vassals, city-states in Italy, and small territories ruled by princes, bishops, or the pope Farmers chose to work for large landowners to avoid taxes (beginnings of manorialism/feudalism) China was once again under a single emperor China still governed by a merit-based bureaucracy China’s Confucianism still ordered the society India’s system was not based on political unity (Hinduism remained

Religious Effects Surge in the Great Religions – Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam expanded as the great empires decline; political and economic instability, plus the impact of devastating epidemic prompted individuals to seek new spiritual answers In the west, religion, particularly Christianity, was left to slowly develop authority and the Roman Catholic Church became increasingly institutionalized

Effects of the Falls Rome China India Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians Established standardized hierarchy of church officials The bishop of Rome, known as the pope, became spiritual leader As Roman empire collapsed, Christianity served as a cultural foundation Buddhism spread into China as competition to Confucian traditions India’s system was not based on political unity (Hinduism remained

Magnitude of the Fall Rome China India the most devastated civilization depended on the ability of the government and military to control the area Christianity emerged in Europe too late to provide an unifying factor Area fragmented into small parts and developed unique characteristics Loss of the dynasty meant loss of centralized government resulting in disorder from the loss of authority Chinese society very hierarchical; dynastic cycles that followed the dictates of the Mandate of Heaven were well defined in China, and the Confucian traditions continued to give coherence to Chinese society Had the least impact, partly because political unity wasn’t the rule anyway, and partly because the traditions of Hinduism and the caste system (the glue that held the area together) continued after the empire fell.

What Came Next Byzantine Empire China India Christianity spreads more widely, becomes more centralized, bureaucratic, hierarchical, powerful, development of papacy Patriarchy – women legally disadvantaged Slavery Eastern half of the Roman Empire Lasted over 1000 more years Survived during this time period because of a strong philosophical background Buddhism became more popular coming in on the Silk Road Hinduism remains predominant religion “Southernization” cultural influences from India to SE Asia Caste System

What Came Next Byzantine Empire China India Resurgence of Daoism Sat on Bosporus Strait – wealth from trade Had a strong central government Justinian – code of law – strong, codified laws Replaced Latin with Greek Schism – Eastern Orthodox Church Emperor was in charge of the church and church leaders Resurgence of Daoism Confucianism continued but became more fragmented Patriarchy, filial piety, ancestor veneration Sui Dynasty 589-618 CE Examination system became more open to non elites under Continued expansion of Great Wall Indian Ocean trade remained important No centralized empire replaced it until much later Patriarchy and child marriage

Global Effects Political disunity in the Middle East forged the way for the appearance of a new religion in the 7th century; by 600 CE Islam began expanding Trade was disrupted but survived, keeping intact the trend toward increased long-distance contact; trade on the Indian Ocean increased as conflict and decline of political authority affected overland trade Urban centers decrease in importance