Newly Industrializing Countries (NICs) Improving records of political stability and legitimacy Improving records of political stability and legitimacy GDP >$5000 but $5000 but <$10,000-15,000 Emerging Democratic transitions: Choice Emerging Democratic transitions: Choice Rapid economic growth driven by free market policies Rapid economic growth driven by free market policies Shift to export-led industrialization Shift to export-led industrialization Many undertaking “import substitution”--instead of exporting raw materials, they encourage entrepreneurs to make goods at home Many undertaking “import substitution”--instead of exporting raw materials, they encourage entrepreneurs to make goods at home Investing in infrastructure, urbanizing countries Investing in infrastructure, urbanizing countries Foreign investment key to growth, MNCs Foreign investment key to growth, MNCs EX: Argentina, Brazil, India, Peru, Philippines, Mexico, South Korea, Turkey, South Africa, Taiwan, Sri Lanka,Venezuela, etc. About 33 NICs in all. EX: Argentina, Brazil, India, Peru, Philippines, Mexico, South Korea, Turkey, South Africa, Taiwan, Sri Lanka,Venezuela, etc. About 33 NICs in all. Bureaucracy another key: Chile success story Bureaucracy another key: Chile success story Social development/infant mortality rates Social development/infant mortality rates Some form regional trading blocs: Mercosur (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay Some form regional trading blocs: Mercosur (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay Dependency theory explains lack of some development Dependency theory explains lack of some development

Necessary Conditions for Modernization Expansion of Bureaucracy Expansion of Bureaucracy Growth of State welfare function Growth of State welfare function Increase in the burden of taxation Increase in the burden of taxation An increase in the political activities of citizens An increase in the political activities of citizens

Sufficient Conditions for Legitimacy Elections (peaceful transfer of power) Elections (peaceful transfer of power) Economic well-being Economic well-being Foreign recognition (right of legation allows govt’s to recognize or not) Foreign recognition (right of legation allows govt’s to recognize or not) Foreign support, esp. economic investment Foreign support, esp. economic investment Historical tradition/longevity Historical tradition/longevity Ideology Ideology Charismatic leadership Charismatic leadership Nationalism, national identity, symbols Nationalism, national identity, symbols Political participation/mobilization Political participation/mobilization Role of Military is subdued; civilian control Role of Military is subdued; civilian control Satisfaction with system Satisfaction with system Sense of Efficacy and Sense of Representation Sense of Efficacy and Sense of Representation Shared mass political culture Shared mass political culture Socialization process through media/schools/religion Socialization process through media/schools/religion Supportive public opinion Supportive public opinion Tolerance of opposition (best example: UK) Tolerance of opposition (best example: UK) Written constitution/ respect for the Rule of Law Written constitution/ respect for the Rule of Law Think of how many of these the early U.S. had!!!!! Think of how many of these the early U.S. had!!!!!

Mexico

Mexico: Demographics 3 X the size of Texas3 X the size of Texas Population: 108 million 60% Mestizo 30% Indian 9% Caucasian 60% Mestizo 30% Indian 9% Caucasian 89% nominally Roman Catholic 89% nominally Roman Catholic Life Expectancy: 72.4 men/78 women Life Expectancy: 72.4 men/78 women Mix of US Constitutional theory and civil law Mix of US Constitutional theory and civil law Federal Republic, 31 states + Federal District of Mexico City (also financial, cultural, educational capital) Federal Republic, 31 states + Federal District of Mexico City (also financial, cultural, educational capital) 14% of US exports go to Mexico 14% of US exports go to Mexico GNP Per capita: $10,700 GNP Per capita: $10,700 Poorest 10% make only 1.6% of income Poorest 10% make only 1.6% of income Average length of schooling: 5 years Average length of schooling: 5 years

More Demographics Age structure: 0-14 years: 32.3% (male 17,298,964; female 16,617,728) years: 63.1% (male 32,217,513; female 33,932,603) 65 years and over: 4.6% (male 2,145,252; female 2,695,931) (2003 est.) Median Age: total: 23.8 years male: 22.9 years female: 24.6 years (2002) Population growth rate: 1.2% (2004 est.) Population growth rate: 1.2% (2004 est.) Net migration rate:-2.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003) Net migration rate:-2.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003) Religions: nominally Roman Catholic 89%, Protestant 6%, other 5% Religions: nominally Roman Catholic 89%, Protestant 6%, other 5% Languages: Spanish (official), Nahuatl, and other regional Indigenous languages Languages: Spanish (official), Nahuatl, and other regional Indigenous languages Literacy: total population: 92.2% male: 94% female: 90.5% (2003 est.) Literacy: total population: 92.2% male: 94% female: 90.5% (2003 est.)

Geographic Influences Mountains and desert make communication and transportation difficult Mountains and desert make communication and transportation difficult Varied climates: desert to tropical rain forest Varied climates: desert to tropical rain forest Plentiful natural resources, including oil Plentiful natural resources, including oil 2000 mile border with US—dependency issues, also migration, etc mile border with US—dependency issues, also migration, etc. 1.8% population growth creates challenges 1.8% population growth creates challenges Rapid growth in urban areas Rapid growth in urban areas

History 731 Mayan Empire reaches highest point 1193 Aztec Empire established 1325 Aztecs establish Mexico City 1480 Mayan civilization decimated by disease 1521 Cortes conquers Mexico for Spain 1821 Mexico declares independence from Spain 1846 Mexico war with the US--lose California and much of the US west 1857: New Constitution with Bill of Rights : Emperor Maximilian : Porfirio Diaz dictatorship Mexican revolution against dictator Diaz 1917 Zimmerman telegram, new Constitution,, weakens Church 1929 PNR/PRI founded 1934 Lazaro Cardenas elected President and revived social revolution, organized labor, instituted land reform and expropriated foreign-owned property Lazaro Cardenas elected President and revived social revolution, organized labor, instituted land reform and expropriated foreign-owned property.

Mexican History Cont’d World War II. After Pearl Harbor, declared war on the Axis. U.S.-Mexican friendship cemented. Bracero program World War II. After Pearl Harbor, declared war on the Axis. U.S.-Mexican friendship cemented. Bracero program. 1946: Miguel Alemán elected first civilian President since Madero in : Miguel Alemán elected first civilian President since Madero in : Mexico City Olympics 1968: Mexico City Olympics 1982 Peso crisis, debt default 1983-present: Neoliberal reforms 1989: PAN wins Governorship of Baja California Aug 12, 1992: Mexico joined the U. S. and Canada in NAFTA, effective January 1, Aug 12, 1992: Mexico joined the U. S. and Canada in NAFTA, effective January 1, : Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon inaugurated President of Mexico. Zapatistas in Chiapas revolt. Represent Amerindians who are not getting the economic improvements of the North. 1994: Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon inaugurated President of Mexico. Zapatistas in Chiapas revolt. Represent Amerindians who are not getting the economic improvements of the North Mexican banking crisis. With U. S. aid the Mexican economy recovers Mexican banking crisis. With U. S. aid the Mexican economy recovers Vicente Fox the first non-PRI President of Mexico (43% vote but gridlock with Congress of the other party) 2006 Felipe Calderon (PAN) wins narrow victory as President

Eras of Mexican History and Key Pts Colonialism ( ): led to cultural heterogeneity, Catholicism, economic dependency Colonialism ( ): led to cultural heterogeneity, Catholicism, economic dependency Independence/New country ( ): instability, rise of the military, domination by US, struggle between Liberal Democrats and Conservatives Independence/New country ( ): instability, rise of the military, domination by US, struggle between Liberal Democrats and Conservatives Porfiriato ( ): Stability, authoritarianism, foreign investment, economic growth, gap between rich and poor, cientificos Porfiriato ( ): Stability, authoritarianism, foreign investment, economic growth, gap between rich and poor, cientificos Coup of 1910 ends Diaz reign Coup of 1910 ends Diaz reign

1911-Present Mexico Early 20 th Century: Patron Client system emerges—to support rebels who want power Early 20 th Century: Patron Client system emerges—to support rebels who want power Constitution of 1917 brings some stability Constitution of 1917 brings some stability Cristeros Rebellion of 1920s: Priests killed, liberals see them as threat, so they strip voting rights Cristeros Rebellion of 1920s: Priests killed, liberals see them as threat, so they strip voting rights Calles brings together caudillos in 1929 to form PRI: Presidency on rotating basis, sexenios Calles brings together caudillos in 1929 to form PRI: Presidency on rotating basis, sexenios

Presidents of Mexico 1934–1940: Lázaro Cárdenas Lázaro Cárdenas 1940–1946: Manuel Ávila Camacho Manuel Ávila Camacho 1946–1952: Miguel Alemán Valdés Miguel Alemán Valdés 1952–1958: Adolfo Ruiz Cortines Adolfo Ruiz Cortines 1958–1964: Adolfo López Mateos Adolfo López Mateos 1964–1970: Gustavo Díaz Ordaz Gustavo Díaz Ordaz 1970–1976: Luis Echeverría Álvarez Luis Echeverría Álvarez 1976–1982: José López Portillo José López Portillo 1982–1988: Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado 1988–1994: Carlos Salinas de Gortari Carlos Salinas de Gortari 1994–2000: Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de León 2000–2006: Vicente Fox Quesada (PAN) 2000Vicente Fox Quesada ? : Felipe Calderon (PAN)

Lazaro Cardenas ( ) Redistributed land Redistributed land Nationalized industry and created PEMEX Nationalized industry and created PEMEX Investment in infrastructure and public works Investment in infrastructure and public works Encouragement of peasant and union organizations Encouragement of peasant and union organizations Concentration of power in the Presidency Concentration of power in the Presidency Import substitution industrialization (high tariffs) Import substitution industrialization (high tariffs) Peaceful transition of power Peaceful transition of power By 1946, Aleman changes these policies, starting the Pendulum Theory By 1946, Aleman changes these policies, starting the Pendulum Theory By 1980s, Mexico embraces neoliberalism: free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, and limited government By 1980s, Mexico embraces neoliberalism: free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, and limited government

Historical Traditions Authoritarianism Authoritarianism Populism Populism Power plays/divisions among the elite (even late 20 th Cty: politicos v. tecnicos) Power plays/divisions among the elite (even late 20 th Cty: politicos v. tecnicos) Instability and legitimacy issues—as late as 1994 a major Presidential candidate was assassinated Instability and legitimacy issues—as late as 1994 a major Presidential candidate was assassinated

The Executive Branch ONE 6-year term. No Vice-President. Current President: Felipe Calderon ONE 6-year term. No Vice-President. Current President: Felipe Calderon Vacancy: if vacant in first 2 years, must be new election. If in final 4 years of term, Congress chooses a President Vacancy: if vacant in first 2 years, must be new election. If in final 4 years of term, Congress chooses a President Appoints 21-member Supreme Court (Senate must confirm) Appoints 21-member Supreme Court (Senate must confirm) Supreme executive power is exercised by the President of the United Mexican States. The President is elected by direct vote under the Electoral Law. Supreme executive power is exercised by the President of the United Mexican States. The President is elected by direct vote under the Electoral Law. The Executive may appoint and remove freely the secretaries of the Cabinet, diplomatic agents and high-level employees of the Treasury, and to appoint and remove freely all other employees of the Union whose appointment or removal is not otherwise provided for in the Constitution or by law (art. 89, section II of the Constitution). The Executive may appoint and remove freely the secretaries of the Cabinet, diplomatic agents and high-level employees of the Treasury, and to appoint and remove freely all other employees of the Union whose appointment or removal is not otherwise provided for in the Constitution or by law (art. 89, section II of the Constitution). The Executive shall also have the power to: appoint ministers, diplomatic agents, and consuls-general with the approval of the Senate; to appoint with the approval of the Senate, the colonels and other high-ranking officers of the army, navy, and air force, and the high-level employees of the Treasury; to appoint the other officers of the army, navy and air force as provided by law; to appoint with the approval of the Senate the Attorney-General of the Republic; to direct diplomatic negotiations and make treaties with foreign submitting them to the ratification of the federal Congress; to appoint the ministers of the Supreme Court of Justice and submit such appointments, leaves of absence, and resignations to the approval of the Chamber of senators, or to the Permanent Committee The Executive shall also have the power to: appoint ministers, diplomatic agents, and consuls-general with the approval of the Senate; to appoint with the approval of the Senate, the colonels and other high-ranking officers of the army, navy, and air force, and the high-level employees of the Treasury; to appoint the other officers of the army, navy and air force as provided by law; to appoint with the approval of the Senate the Attorney-General of the Republic; to direct diplomatic negotiations and make treaties with foreign submitting them to the ratification of the federal Congress; to appoint the ministers of the Supreme Court of Justice and submit such appointments, leaves of absence, and resignations to the approval of the Chamber of senators, or to the Permanent Committee

2006 Mexican Election

2006 Mexican Presidential Election Yellow= PRD Yellow= PRD Blue=PAN Blue=PAN

Mexican Legislative Branch Chamber of Deputies (500) Chamber of Deputies (500) 3 year term 3 year term No consecutive terms No consecutive terms 300 elected directly by single- member districts 300 elected directly by single- member districts 200 elected proportionally 200 elected proportionally The powers of the congress include the right to pass laws, impose taxes, declare war, approve the national budget, approve or reject treaties and conventions made with foreign countries, and ratify diplomatic appointments. The powers of the congress include the right to pass laws, impose taxes, declare war, approve the national budget, approve or reject treaties and conventions made with foreign countries, and ratify diplomatic appointments. Under 1 party rule, strong desire to please the President and win executive appointments Under 1 party rule, strong desire to please the President and win executive appointments Senate (161) Senate (161) 6 year term/No consecutive terms 6 year term/No consecutive terms 4 per state plus federal district 4 per state plus federal district The Senate was doubled in size to 128 members, with one of each state's four seats going to whichever party comes in second in that state. The Senate was doubled in size to 128 members, with one of each state's four seats going to whichever party comes in second in that state. 2 winners and a loser (minority with most votes) from each district. Political parties register a list with two candidates. 2 winners and a loser (minority with most votes) from each district. Political parties register a list with two candidates. The largest minority senate seat is awarded to the candidate heading the list of the political party which gained the second highest number of votes in the district in question. The largest minority senate seat is awarded to the candidate heading the list of the political party which gained the second highest number of votes in the district in question. The remaining 32 senators are elected by proportional representation through a system of lists voted on in a single national multi-slate district. The remaining 32 senators are elected by proportional representation through a system of lists voted on in a single national multi-slate district.

There are three levels of federal courts under the Supreme Court of Justice: twelve Collegiate Circuit Courts, each with three magistrates; nine Unitary Circuit Courts, each with six magistrates; and sixty-eight District Courts, each with one judge. Federal judges for the lower courts are appointed by the Supreme Court of Justice. There are three levels of federal courts under the Supreme Court of Justice: twelve Collegiate Circuit Courts, each with three magistrates; nine Unitary Circuit Courts, each with six magistrates; and sixty-eight District Courts, each with one judge. Federal judges for the lower courts are appointed by the Supreme Court of Justice. The Federal Judicial is ruled by the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, which is formed by 11 ministers designated by proposal of the President and approval vote of two thirds of the members of the Senate. The Judicial Branch of the 32 States is ruled by their own Superior Court of Justice. The Federal Judicial is ruled by the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, which is formed by 11 ministers designated by proposal of the President and approval vote of two thirds of the members of the Senate. The Judicial Branch of the 32 States is ruled by their own Superior Court of Justice. Circuit court magistrates and district court judges serve terms of six years, after which, should they be confirmed in their posts or promoted to higher office, they may be removed from office only under the circumstances and in accordance with the procedures established by law. Circuit court magistrates and district court judges serve terms of six years, after which, should they be confirmed in their posts or promoted to higher office, they may be removed from office only under the circumstances and in accordance with the procedures established by law. Judicial review since 1994 Judicial review since 1994 Judicial Branch

Mexican Supreme Court The judicial branch of the Mexican government is divided into federal and state systems. Mexico's highest court is the Supreme Court of Justice, located in Mexico City. The judicial branch of the Mexican government is divided into federal and state systems. Mexico's highest court is the Supreme Court of Justice, located in Mexico City. It consists of twenty-one magistrates and five auxiliary judges, all appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate or the Permanent Committee. It consists of twenty-one magistrates and five auxiliary judges, all appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate or the Permanent Committee. In order to appoint judges to the Supreme Court of Justice, the President of the Republic is required to submit a list of candidates for the consideration of the Senate. After interviewing the candidates, the Senate then designates the judge who will fill the vacancy in question. In order to appoint judges to the Supreme Court of Justice, the President of the Republic is required to submit a list of candidates for the consideration of the Senate. After interviewing the candidates, the Senate then designates the judge who will fill the vacancy in question. Supreme Court judges serve terms of 15 years, and they may be removed from office only under the circumstances set out in Title Four of the Constitution, and, upon completion of their term, shall be entitled to a retirement benefit. Supreme Court judges serve terms of 15 years, and they may be removed from office only under the circumstances set out in Title Four of the Constitution, and, upon completion of their term, shall be entitled to a retirement benefit.

Political Culture Most important: Profound distrust of the state/government. Mexicans have a far more negative view of their political system than their U.S. counterparts. Most important: Profound distrust of the state/government. Mexicans have a far more negative view of their political system than their U.S. counterparts. Most Mexicans favor democracy over authoritarianism. When compared to U.S. respondents, Mexicans are far more likely to define democracy in terms of equality than freedom. Religion very important though. Most Mexicans favor democracy over authoritarianism. When compared to U.S. respondents, Mexicans are far more likely to define democracy in terms of equality than freedom. Religion very important though. Corporatist structure: central authoritarian rule that allows input from interest groups outside of government Corporatist structure: central authoritarian rule that allows input from interest groups outside of government Mexican men express far more interest in politics than women do. Interest in politics increases with education & income. 47% of university students are female, 16% of Congress is(14% US) Mexican men express far more interest in politics than women do. Interest in politics increases with education & income. 47% of university students are female, 16% of Congress is(14% US) A serious problem confronting Mexico's attempt to construct a stable democracy are the very low levels of political efficacy A serious problem confronting Mexico's attempt to construct a stable democracy are the very low levels of political efficacy Unlike Communist regimes, which actively promoted political mobilization, Mexico under the PRI was an authoritarian regime that sought to contain and limit popular participation in politics. Unlike Communist regimes, which actively promoted political mobilization, Mexico under the PRI was an authoritarian regime that sought to contain and limit popular participation in politics.

Political Culture The country has very low levels of participation in politics, party membership, and political activism. Multiparty system has replaced one- party system. The country has very low levels of participation in politics, party membership, and political activism. Multiparty system has replaced one- party system. Universal adult suffrage, voting mandatory (not enforced) Universal adult suffrage, voting mandatory (not enforced) Main cleavages: Ethnicity (Amerindian v. Mestizo), Class, Region (urban/rural and north/south). All of these tend to be reinforcing. Main cleavages: Ethnicity (Amerindian v. Mestizo), Class, Region (urban/rural and north/south). All of these tend to be reinforcing. Patron-clientelism: system of cliques based on personal characteristics and charismatic leadership—network of these camarillas Patron-clientelism: system of cliques based on personal characteristics and charismatic leadership—network of these camarillas CFE (Federal Election Commission was created as independent regulatory body: Campaign finance laws, media coverage more comprehensive, international election observers, election monitoring by opposition party members too CFE (Federal Election Commission was created as independent regulatory body: Campaign finance laws, media coverage more comprehensive, international election observers, election monitoring by opposition party members too Fox used PAC to help get elected, has pushed rule of law, pluralism, decentralization, election reform, and anti-narcotics measures Fox used PAC to help get elected, has pushed rule of law, pluralism, decentralization, election reform, and anti-narcotics measures

Corporatism in Mexico Def’n: A system of representing citizen’s interests where the government allows certain groups privileged access in return for their loyalty. Opposite of interest group liberalism (interest group pluralism) Def’n: A system of representing citizen’s interests where the government allows certain groups privileged access in return for their loyalty. Opposite of interest group liberalism (interest group pluralism) Democratic Pluralism is European: benefits working class Democratic Pluralism is European: benefits working class Mexican Corporatism, though, is based on 4 sectors of society that all got a seat at the table when policy was being formulated. Workers Peasants Middle Class Military Mexican Corporatism, though, is based on 4 sectors of society that all got a seat at the table when policy was being formulated. Workers Peasants Middle Class Military Military: Has grown in power since 1990, was always under civilian control. Stops drugs and supresses uprisings. Military: Has grown in power since 1990, was always under civilian control. Stops drugs and supresses uprisings. Slowly going away….BUT Slowly going away….BUT Corruption still flourishes. Kickbacks required to get things done. Corruption still flourishes. Kickbacks required to get things done. Social welfare still a problem—unequal access to education, healthcare. PROGRESA helps keep kids in school rather than working. Fox wants microloans for poor entrepreneurs Social welfare still a problem—unequal access to education, healthcare. PROGRESA helps keep kids in school rather than working. Fox wants microloans for poor entrepreneurs Environmental degradation rampant/lack of “environmental justice” (Mexico City air pollution, etc) Environmental degradation rampant/lack of “environmental justice” (Mexico City air pollution, etc) Ejidos in rural areas grow because of government land grants Ejidos in rural areas grow because of government land grants Clientelism has 3 problems: 1) May be fake with only small payouts to labor 2) Excludes important groups (Catholic church, big businessmen) 3) rigidity (allocations should change over years) Clientelism has 3 problems: 1) May be fake with only small payouts to labor 2) Excludes important groups (Catholic church, big businessmen) 3) rigidity (allocations should change over years)

Major Political Parties PAN: the National Action Party– the right-wing party of incumbent President Vicente Fox This party believes in political professionalism and free enterprise. Among its members are an number of Roman Catholic radicals who believe the party should impose Catholic morality as law. Embraces the main peasant organization (CNC) and main labor union (CTM). Younger voters, students, more educated northerners and westerners in general. Regional autonomy, supports private religious education PAN: the National Action Party– the right-wing party of incumbent President Vicente Fox This party believes in political professionalism and free enterprise. Among its members are an number of Roman Catholic radicals who believe the party should impose Catholic morality as law. Embraces the main peasant organization (CNC) and main labor union (CTM). Younger voters, students, more educated northerners and westerners in general. Regional autonomy, supports private religious education PRI: the Institutional Revolutionary Party– in power, under different names, at the local, state, and national levels for most of the 20th century. For the current legislative period (2003–2006), still the largest party in both chambers of Congress. PRI: the Institutional Revolutionary Party– in power, under different names, at the local, state, and national levels for most of the 20th century. For the current legislative period (2003–2006), still the largest party in both chambers of Congress. PRD: the Party of the Democratic Revolution– Born as a Democratic Front in the 1988 elections. Its candidate then, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, lost the 1988 presidential election under dubious circumstances, and thus the party consolidated itself. It is currently in power in the Federal District (until 2006 under Mayor Andrés Manuel López Obrador). PRD: the Party of the Democratic Revolution– Born as a Democratic Front in the 1988 elections. Its candidate then, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, lost the 1988 presidential election under dubious circumstances, and thus the party consolidated itself. It is currently in power in the Federal District (until 2006 under Mayor Andrés Manuel López Obrador). PVEM: the Green Ecological Party of Mexico PVEM: the Green Ecological Party of Mexico

Political Economy of Mexico PRI followed the strategy of Import Substitution Industrialization PRI followed the strategy of Import Substitution Industrialization High tariffs protect local goods from imports High tariffs protect local goods from imports Government ownership of industries (oil, railroads, banks, airlines) Government ownership of industries (oil, railroads, banks, airlines) Government subsidies to key industries (subsidized workers with housing, food, healthcare to keep labor costs down for domestic industries) Government subsidies to key industries (subsidized workers with housing, food, healthcare to keep labor costs down for domestic industries) Since 1983, neoliberal: free trade, free markets, competition, subsidies abolished. NAFTA. Since 1983, neoliberal: free trade, free markets, competition, subsidies abolished. NAFTA. But 40% of population below poverty line But 40% of population below poverty line

Foreign Policy Mexican foreign policy has focused primarily on the United States, its northern neighbor, largest trading partner, and the most powerful actor in hemispheric and world affairs. Traditionally, Mexico's foreign policy has been considered leftist, prorevolutionary, and nationalistic Mexico has played a minor role in international affairs through most of its history. Mexico's role in international affairs was limited until the 1970s, mainly because of the country's need to concentrate on domestic issues, particularly on internal stability and economic growth. Mexico soon became the principal supplier of oil to the United States after the 1973 energy crisis. Mexico has maintained an independent oil policy, however, refusing to join the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) during the 1970s, but participating in the Organization of Latin American Petroleum Exporting Countries (OLAPEC) during the 1980s. Joined WTO in 1986

NAFTA United States felt that a free-trade accord would open the Mexican economy and incorporate it into a North American trading bloc. Mexican President Salinas didn’t want neoliberal reforms destroyed by future Mexican Administrations. On June 11, 1990, the two governments agreed in principle to negotiate a "comprehensive free-trade agreement" Not only did it eliminate tariff barriers, but also "import quotas, licenses, and technical barriers" to the free flow of goods, services, and capital between the two nations. In 1992 NAFTA was approved by the legislatures of Mexico, the United States, and Canada to take effect on January 1, Proof: GDP increase, Mexican economy hurts when US does

Maquiladoras In 1965, Mexico initiated its National Border Industrialization Program to help develop the infrastructure of its northern border, create employment and provide a means of transferring technology into the country. In 1965, Mexico initiated its National Border Industrialization Program to help develop the infrastructure of its northern border, create employment and provide a means of transferring technology into the country. The Maquiladora Program, as it has come to be known, allowed foreign manufacturers to temporarily import duty free machinery, tools, equipment, replacement parts and raw materials necessary to assemble and manufacture products for re-export outside of the country. The Maquiladora Program, as it has come to be known, allowed foreign manufacturers to temporarily import duty free machinery, tools, equipment, replacement parts and raw materials necessary to assemble and manufacture products for re-export outside of the country. There are over one million Mexicans working in over 3,000 maquiladora manufacturing or export assembly plants in northern Mexico, producing parts and products for the United States. There are over one million Mexicans working in over 3,000 maquiladora manufacturing or export assembly plants in northern Mexico, producing parts and products for the United States. Guadalajara- “Mini Silicon Valley” Guadalajara- “Mini Silicon Valley”

Maquiladoras Mexican labor is inexpensive and courtesy of NAFTA, taxes and custom fees are almost nonexistent, which benefit the profits of corporations. Most of these maquiladora lie within a short drive of the U.S.-Mexico border. Mexican labor is inexpensive and courtesy of NAFTA, taxes and custom fees are almost nonexistent, which benefit the profits of corporations. Most of these maquiladora lie within a short drive of the U.S.-Mexico border. Maquiladoras are owned by U.S., Japanese, and European countries and some could be considered "sweatshops" composed of young women working for as little as 50 cents an hour, for up to ten hours a day, six days a week. However, in recent years, NAFTA has started to pay off - some maquiladoras are improving conditions for their workers, along with wages Maquiladoras are owned by U.S., Japanese, and European countries and some could be considered "sweatshops" composed of young women working for as little as 50 cents an hour, for up to ten hours a day, six days a week. However, in recent years, NAFTA has started to pay off - some maquiladoras are improving conditions for their workers, along with wages Since its inception, the Maquiladora Program has undergone many changes, the most significant of which was necessitated by ratification of the North American Free Trade Agreement between Canada, the United States and Mexico, which became effective on January 1, 1994 ("NAFTA"). Since its inception, the Maquiladora Program has undergone many changes, the most significant of which was necessitated by ratification of the North American Free Trade Agreement between Canada, the United States and Mexico, which became effective on January 1, 1994 ("NAFTA"). Article 303 of that agreement required that by January 1, 2001, Mexico permit all of a Maquiladora's production to be sold in Mexico, and further restricted the duty relief given by Mexico on goods used in the Maquiladora process. Article 303 of that agreement required that by January 1, 2001, Mexico permit all of a Maquiladora's production to be sold in Mexico, and further restricted the duty relief given by Mexico on goods used in the Maquiladora process.

Problem: Chiapas On January 1, 1994, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation a heretofore unknown group, suddenly overran several towns in Chiapas as a protest to NAFTA—which they saw as furthering PRI goals The overwhelming military response forced the rebels into the mountains, but the rebels' demands for reform reminded the country that recent economic improvements had failed to reach many in the lower classes or in the impoverished south. With all eyes focused on the presidential campaign and the uprising in Chiapas, few noticed the worsening economy in A rising deficit in the current account made the economy increasingly vulnerable to shifts in external capital flow— bad for poor peasant farmers

Learning Objectives After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: Understand the key moments of the historical formation and evolution of Mexico. Understand the key moments of the historical formation and evolution of Mexico. Discuss the evolution of Mexican political system and define the role of the following political leaders: Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Porfirio Diaz, Lazaro Cardenas, Vicente Fox, Miguel de la Madrid Discuss the evolution of Mexican political system and define the role of the following political leaders: Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Porfirio Diaz, Lazaro Cardenas, Vicente Fox, Miguel de la Madrid Recognize the importance of Mexican social diversity, economic challenges and the specification of the political system. Recognize the importance of Mexican social diversity, economic challenges and the specification of the political system. Comprehend the role of political parties in Mexico and understand the ideological differences among the following: PRD, PRI, PAN Comprehend the role of political parties in Mexico and understand the ideological differences among the following: PRD, PRI, PAN Understand the factors which contributed to the patron-client relationships in Mexican political system. Understand the factors which contributed to the patron-client relationships in Mexican political system. Define the specifications of the political culture in Mexico. Define the specifications of the political culture in Mexico.

Learning Objectives After mastering the concepts presented in this chapter, you will be able to: Recognize challenges of political participation under the PRI dominance in Mexico. Recognize challenges of political participation under the PRI dominance in Mexico. Understand the functions of the key institutions of the Mexican state. Understand the functions of the key institutions of the Mexican state. Discuss the role of presidential domination, judicial weakness and legislative ineffectiveness in Mexican state. Discuss the role of presidential domination, judicial weakness and legislative ineffectiveness in Mexican state. Comprehend the challenges of Mexican federal system. Comprehend the challenges of Mexican federal system. Define Mexican corporatism and corruption. Define Mexican corporatism and corruption. Understand Mexico’s key public policy developments. Recognize the role of Miguel de la Madrid in implementing public policy reforms thus repairing the debt crisis in Mexico in 1980s. Understand Mexico’s key public policy developments. Recognize the role of Miguel de la Madrid in implementing public policy reforms thus repairing the debt crisis in Mexico in 1980s. Discuss the challenges of the US-Mexican relations, including the immigration reform. Discuss the challenges of the US-Mexican relations, including the immigration reform.