Structural influences on equity and sports participation

Chapter overview Sport and the media Reinforcing stereotypes through the media page 333 Sport as a business The commodification of sport page 338 Sports marketing page 341 Sponsorship page 344 Sexploitation page 349 Government funding and development programs Elite versus participation funding page 353 Development programs for the grassroots page 356 Now that you’ve finished … answers

Back to chapter overview Sport and the media Page 333

Sport and the media The media affects our emotions and helps shape our attitudes. The media has increased Australian access to many sports. Coverage of men’s and women’s sport is not equal. Change towards equity is very slow in occurring, and equal coverage in the near future is unlikely.

Reinforcing stereotypes through the media Back to chapter overview Reinforcing stereotypes through the media Page 333

Reinforcing stereotypes through media Stereotypes are reinforced through: Commentary Article headlines Positioning of articles Imagery used Author bias

Female athletes in the media Ability secondary to looks Often portrayed in passive or supportive roles Smaller articles, usually at back of sports section Limited televised coverage, outside of prime viewing time Language Emphasis on physical attractiveness Refer to “Just how uneven is the coverage?”, pages 336–337

Male athletes in the media Athletes portrayed as active and physical Language reinforces aggression Dominates sports pages Significant events accorded front page status State of Origin World Cup qualification Gold medals Prime-time coverage Free to air Fox sports

Back to chapter overview Sport as a business Page 338

Sport as a business Mass media has elevated sport into big business Team ownership Television rights Player management Sports marketing

The commodification of sport Back to chapter overview The commodification of sport Page 338

Commodification of sport A commodity is anything that can be bought and sold. SPORT = BUSINESS The commodification of sport is the process of turning sport into a marketable business Commodification has seen the formation of companies to manage large sporting competitions

Sport is a form of entertainment Sport must change to meet: Social demands (time constraints) Social expectations (more exciting) Examples: Cricket NRL Limited (50) over matches 2 referees Twenty20 matches Limited number of interchanges 3rd umpire Video referee

Back to chapter overview Sports marketing page 341

How many items of sporting merchandise do you own? Sports marketing Promotional strategies to increase awareness Advertising Merchandise Media exposure Product changes Personal reflection How many items of sporting merchandise do you own? How has the commodification of sport influenced how you watch and participate in sport?

Marketing in school sports Methods used to increase participation and awareness Assembly presentations Sign up days Notices and posters Interschool sports Lunchtime competitions

Personal reflection What has your school done to market the sport you are currently studying?

Back to chapter overview Sponsorship Page 344

Sponsorship A positive association with a team or individual Allocation of sponsorship is linked to: Success of team or individual Media coverage of sport Cultural significance of sport Personal reflection Have you ever witnessed a sports star engage in on- or off-field antics that have gained them notoriety?

Sponsoring individual athletes FRED principle F Familiarity Athlete perceived as friendly and trustworthy R Relevance A positive link to product and athlete E Esteem Respect for the athlete to increase credibility D Differentiation An athlete who stands out from the others

Back to chapter overview Sexploitation Page 349

Sexploitation Any form of marketing that focuses on sexual attributes and attractiveness of the athlete. The difference between the men’s and women’s beach volleyball uniforms is an example of the sexploitation of female athletes.

Sexploitation continued More likely with female sports to generate sponsorship and exposure Can trivialise sporting achievements Uniform regulations are not equitable (male versus female) Photographs of models in swimwear is inappropriate and irrelevant to sport Sexploitation is a marketing strategy that can backfire Can create anxiety and embarrassment Poor self esteem and body image issues

Government funding and development programs Back to chapter overview Government funding and development programs Page 352

Government funding and development programs Raised Australia’s international profile Government funding and developmental initiatives began in the 1970s Failure to win gold at 1976 Montreal Olympics saw the development of AIS

Elite versus participation funding Back to chapter overview Elite versus participation funding Page 353

Elite versus participation funding Crawford Report 2009 investigated the allocation of government funding for sport and physical recreation Discovered a bias towards Olympic sports (80% of funding) 2 major recommendations: Direct more government funding towards sports with higher participation numbers Maintain current funding to elite programs (Olympics)

Development programs for the grassroots Back to chapter overview Development programs for the grassroots Page 356

Development programs for the grassroots Sporting associations target hundreds of thousands of Australian children to communicate a positive message about sports participation. Examples of modified versions: Auskick Little Athletics Aussie Hoops Milo Soccer Hot Shot Tennis Netta Netball Kanga Cricket Oztag Kids to Kangaroos Try Rugby

Personal reflection What experiences have you had with modified sports? Did these experiences encourage you to continue your participation in this sport? Which sporting associations in your community work to increase participation in sport?

Now that you have finished ... Back to chapter overview Now that you have finished ... Answers

Sport is highly valued in Australian society. 1 a Provide three reasons to explain why the media dedicates an increasingly large amount of time and space to sports reporting. Sport is highly valued in Australian society. Commodification of sport. Saturation of sports marketing. Increased professionalism of sport.

1 b Use your response above to justify how society’s attitudes and beliefs about sport (cultural level) are being reinforced through the media. In the cultural chapter, we discussed the need for Australian men’s success in sport being of paramount importance, leading to increased national pride, recognition and status. This train of thought has survived the past century and can still be seen today. As women were latecomers to competitive and representative sport, their success today is often considered to be a bonus on top of the men’s achievements. The media perpetuates this and a good example of this can be seen with the reporting around the swimming achievements from the 2004 Athens and 2008 Beijing Olympics. These events should have cemented Australia’s female swim team as a superpower in the pool, rather their achievement was devalued by the focus by the media on the men’s performance. Initially, their success was celebrated widely in both print and electronic media giving them their much needed and sought after coverage. This coverage was short lived, however, and the focus soon turned to the deemed ‘failure’ of the men’s swim team who, in comparison, achieved a limited medal haul. This apparent failure of the men was more newsworthy as it threatened the identity of Australia as a successful sporting nation.

2. Which sports dominate the following 2 Which sports dominate the following? a nightly television news broadcasts b newspaper articles SUMMER WINTER Cricket Rugby League Football (Soccer) AFL Tennis Horse racing Male sports dominate the news regardless of the season. A brief mention may be given to national teams who achieve success overseas Even during the Commonwealth Games, NRL and AFL dominated news coverage.

Cultural significance based on previous success 3 List the factors that determine which sports receive greater publicity. Cultural significance based on previous success International exposure to promote Australian excellence International success National competition Individual teams based in a city (Broncos, Melbourne Storm, Brisbane Roar) Seasonal: Summer/Winter Olympic/Commonwealth year Sport stars Status Looks Marketability

Broncos would receive less publicity. Structural: 4 Would the Broncos receive more or less publicity through the Townsville media? Can this be explained using Figueroa’s levels? How? Broncos would receive less publicity. Structural: Media promoting “local team” Players used in the local media Johnathon Thurston (Australian halfback) Institutional: Successful NRL team based in one city Promotion opportunities at community level Facilities Schools Scholarships Interpersonal Role models (Increased Familiarity & Relevance)

Attractive athletes have greater marketing opportunities 5 Discuss how sex appeal can be used by both male and female athletes to gain sponsorship. Attractive athletes have greater marketing opportunities Greater media exposure through various outlets Commercials Advertising Calenders Magazines Uniforms: Body hugging and revealing Enhance and promote physical qualities needed for sport AFL/NRL Requirements can be different for each sex Beach volleyball Touch football

6 a Define commodification The commodification of sport can be described as the process of developing sport into a marketable business. Changing sport into a commodity has seen the formation of companies that manage: large sporting competitions Individual sporting teams Individuals

6 b Which level of Figueroa’s framework can be linked to commodification? INSTITUTIONAL Facilities School competitions INTERPERSONAL Role models CULTURAL Selected sports Societal demands Entertainment STRUCTURAL Media Rules Marketing Funding

6 c List five ways in which commodification has occurred in sport. Rule changes to increase the entertainment value National sporting competitions Full-time careers for athletes (professionals) Television rights Player management companies to negotiate player contracts Merchandise of clothing and equipment Use of technology to improve playing equipment and performance

7. The Twenty20 Indian Premier League is extremely successful in India 7 The Twenty20 Indian Premier League is extremely successful in India. Could this type of competition be as successful in Australia? Justify your response using elements from Figueroa’s framework. The Australian Twenty 20 will be successful as has been shown in the article “Twenty 20 bashing for test cricket” (page 340). Indian-run competitions (IPL and Champions League) will continue to be bigger. Cultural: Cricket is part of Australia’s sporting history and identity Structural: Provides the opportunity for a league-type competition like AFL Generates revenue Easy to follow Similar to league competitions like Rugby League or AFL – crossover appeal Amount of prize money is staggering ($13.3million)

8. What is the acronym that is used to select marketable athletes 8 What is the acronym that is used to select marketable athletes? What does it stand for? FRED principle F Familiarity Athlete perceived as friendly and trustworthy R Relevance A positive link to product and athlete E Esteem Respect for the athlete to increase credibility D Differentiation An athlete who stands out from the others

Risk of international sporting image tarnished 9 What factors prompted the government to develop the Australian Institute of Sport? Government had already introduced various initiatives to increase the Australian involvement in sport (1972) Perceived failure of Australian athletes at the 1976 Montreal Olympics (no gold medals) Risk of international sporting image tarnished Other nations were increasing funding for the development of: Sports training facilities Talent identification programs

10 Governments spend enormous amounts of money to secure sporting events. Why? Link your answer to relevant levels from Figueroa’s framework. Cultural level (dominant) International recognition to raise Australia’s profile Tourism opportunities Employment Structural level Business opportunities Institutional level Better facilities for communities after the event has been staged Interpersonal level Elite international super stars as role models Increased merchandising sales Exchange of coaching ideas Individual level Increased opportunities for participation (qualification)

Image credits Slide 1, Getty Images/Victor Decolongon Slide 4, Getty Images/Hamish Blair Slide 7, Getty Images/AFP/Jean-Pierre Muller Slide 8, Getty Images/Mark Nolan Slide 10, Getty Images/Matt King Slide 12, AAP Image/Haystac Active Slide 15, Getty Images/Bradley Kanaris Slide 16, Newspix/Gary Graham Slide 19, AAP Image/Tracey Nearmy Slide 22, Getty Images/AFP/Thomas Coex Slide 22, Getty Images/Harry How Slide 25, AAP Image/AP Photo Slide 25, Getty Images/AFP/Torsten Blackwood