Costs and Costing Cost Benefit Analysis Cost Effectiveness Analysis

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Presentation transcript:

Costs and Costing Cost Benefit Analysis Cost Effectiveness Analysis Slides by Stefano Bertozzi

Costs and Costing

Costs perspectives: Accountants vs. Economists Value of fixed assets vs. Fixed Cost Total Cost (TC)= Cost of producing a specific amount of product/service Fixed Cost (FC)= Cost that does not vary with the quantity produced in the short run (one year) Variable Cost (VC)= Cost that varies with the quantity produced

Costs perspectives: Accountants vs. Economists Value of assets vs. Fixed Cost Depreciation vs. Discounting

0%; Total 3,000 3%; Total 2,019 10%; Total 1,037 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0%; Total 3,000 3%; Total 2,019 10%; Total 1,037 1 5 10 15 20 25 30

Costs perspectives: Accountants vs. Economists Value of assets vs. Fixed Cost Depreciation vs. Discounting Financial Cost vs. Opportunity Cost The cost of any activity measured in terms of the benefit forgone from the next best alternative

Costs perspectives: Accountants vs. Economists Value of assets vs. Fixed Cost Depreciation vs. Discounting Financial Cost vs. Opportunity Cost Minimize leaks and auditing problems vs. Maximize efficiency Average Cost vs. Marginal Cost Average Cost: total cost /n Marginal Cost: total cost [n] – total cost [n-1]

Average Cost Marginal Cost 25 Average Cost Marginal Cost 20 15 Cost 10 5 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 units number

Costers vs. Microeconomists Costs allocation to products vs. Joint production function

Costs allocation to products vs. Joint production function Labor Clinic “black box” Capital Inputs Vaccinated Children Pap tests Diabetes Treatment

Costs allocation to products vs. Joint production function Labor L C I Capital Inputs Vaccinated Children Pap tests Diabetes Treatment

Costs allocation to products vs. Joint production function Labor Capital Inputs School “black box” Children promoted Disabled children promoted Children that fail the grade

¿Why cost? Evaluate efficiency in two equivalent programs Which one provides greater benefits, given a fixed amount of resources Identify principal cost categories, to guide managers towards potential savings Forecast costs Set user fees Perform cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analyses Se requiere detectar las categorías que demanden más costos para poder estudiar en que medida podemos reducirlos o buscar alternativas que los sustituyan.

¿What is cost? It is the value of the resources used to produce something (not necessarily the amount paid for the same resources)

Key costing aspects A) Perspective B) Time Frame C) Analytic horizon D) Data availability

A) Perspective User/beneficiary: costs incured by the user (e.g. transport costs, user fees, opportunity cost for the family, etc.) Provider: costs incured by the service provider (e.g. treatment and hospitalization costs; costs of running a school) Financial agent: costs incured by the funder (e.g. government, a public fund, insurance company, firm, bilateral agency…) Social: all costs, regardless of who pays, including positive and negative externalities (non-compensated work, changes in productivity, in the savings rate, etc.) Una intervención de salud trae costos y beneficios para diferentes sectores. Cuado hacemos valuación económica es muy importante definir la perspectiva desde la cual queremos capturar dichos costos y beneficios, de está manera sabemos también bajoq ue perspectivas son ciertas nuestras conclusiones y saber así el alcance de nuestro estudio. En una intervención de salud es muy frecuente que además del proveedor y el paciente también participan los familiares del paciente, se vea afectado el empleador del paciente (en caso de que sea empleado), el financiador (si no es el mismo paciente y sus familiares) entre otros sectores. Es por todo esto que no debe de perderse de vista que existen varias perspectivas que además están englobadas en la perspectiva social.

B) Time Frame Period of study for data collection Need to capture temporal variation and start-up costs (typically one year) El marco temporal se refiere al periodo o periodicidad con que se presentan los reportes de costos y efectos que está generalmente condicionado a la disponibilidad de datos. Generalmente se adopta como marco temporal el periodo de un año para reducir al mínimo los sesgos que se pudieran dar por efectos de estaciones. Por ejemplo: Si costeamos trimestralmente las enfermedades respiratorias en una familia estaríamos en un error al tomar un trimestre cualquiera para decir que el gasto trimestral por enfermedades respiratorias de una familia es de X (lo que se gastó en ese trimestre), ya que sabemos que, por ejemplos, el último trimestre del año es más favorable a las enfermedades respiratorias por cuestiones estacionales.

C) Analytic Horizon Period of time in which costs and effects are modeled All potential costs and benefits must be considered Chronic illnesses Academic performance Environmental and infrastructure impact El Horizonte temporal debe de elegirse de tal forma que capte todos los costos y efectos de una intervención. Así, para una gripe el horizonte temporal sería bastante pequeño, mientra que para una intervención que salva la vida y añade otros 20 años para vivir el horizonte temporal deberá de ser de 20 años para captar tanto los efectos benéficos de la prolongación de la vida, como los costos de tratamientos adicionales por los 20 años más que añadió la intervención.

Cost estimation can be divided into three parts: Identification of the relevant costs Quantity of resources used (Qs) Value of resources used (C=P*Q) P= price Q= quantity Cuando estamos comparando dos programas los costos relevantes se refieren a todos aquellos costos que no son comunes entre programas. Ejemplo: Si estamos comparando dos programas en los cuales se utilizan la misma cantida de médicos con el mismos sueldo y que trabajan durante el mismo tiempo(es un costo común para los dos programas), es irrelevante considerar estos costos para fines comparativos. Sin embargo, estos costos deben tomarse en cuenta si queremos saber el costo total de los programas o si es preciso transferir el costo a los pacientes o aplicar cuotas de recuperación.

Definitions and Costs Categorization

Costs & Money Not all costs are expenses Caring/nursing time Time spent helping children with their homework Time of volunteers Donations Costs included depend on the perspective El concepto de costo, en este sentido, va más allá de sumar los desembolsos en dinero que cuesta un programa o una actividad. Se trata, pues, de capturar (además de todas esas cosas que tienen valor en el mercado y por las cuales se hicieron desembolsos de dinero) todos aquellos elementos que no tienen valor en el mercado como pueden ser los distintos esfuerzos que realizan las familias de los pacientes y el tiempo de voluntarios, entre otros. En este sentido es importante tomar en cuenta en los costeos las donaciones que hacen distintas personas e instituciones. Todos estos aspectos mencionados anteriormente se consideran como costos(todos lo son desde una perspectiva social), pero cuando enfocamos nuestro análisis desde una sola perspectiva, que no sea la social, nos encontramos que algunos elementos no se consideran costos cuando desde otra perspectiva si se consideran como costos. Por ejemplo, desde la perspectiva del proveedor no se puede considerar como un costo el tiempo que la familia de un paciente dedica a su cuidado, así como tampoco se puede considerar como un costo, desde la perspectiva del paciente, el tiempo de los voluntarios.

e.g. INTERVENTION: ROTAVIRUS VACCINE Net Costs The net costs of one intervention are: (Total Costs of the intervention) – (Value of savings generated) e.g. INTERVENTION: ROTAVIRUS VACCINE Costs Savings ►Vaccine ► Syringe, cotton, alcohol, etc. ► Nurse time ► Logistics: per diems expenses, transport, gasoline… Averted hospitalizations Averted productivity losses (home nursing, averted deaths) En muchas intervenciones de salud, por dar cura definitiva a un padecimiento se evitan tratamientos futuros que pudieran haber sido necesarios por un agrabamiento de la enfermedad. Tambien se evitan tratamientos que mitigan dolencias o deficiencias.

Two types of inputs to classify recurrent inputs: inputs that are used in less than one year capital inputs : inputs that last more than one year Para realizar un estudio de costeo se pueden utilizar distintas metodologías que pueden incluir diferentes formas de clasificación de los costos. Sin embargo la más utilizada y que más ventajas tiene es ésta que se presenta, donde se usa una clasificación por insumos dividiéndose en Insumos de Capital e Insumos Recurrentes. Por convención se clasifica como insumos de capital a quellos insomos que duran más de un año, como puede ser una camioneta, edificios, un aparato de rayos X, etc. Ejemplos de insumos recurrntes pueden ser: Jeringas desechables, algodón, gasolina, etc.

Complications How to value the elements that have no representation in the market? How to manage shared costs? Como ya se vio en diapositivas anteriores, los costes van más allá de los desembolsos e incluyen conceptos que no tienen un valor en el mercado. Cuando nos enfrentamos a problemas como darle valor al tiempo de los voluntarios, no es fácil saber cuál es la mejor manera de hacerlo, si hacerlo por su costo de oportunidad o por lo que costaría contratar a alguien que hiciera las tareas que lleva a cabo como voluntario. La primera opción suele presentar el problema de que frecuentemente las personas que son voluntarias son personas de muy altos ingresos, por lo que la forma más común de hacerla es imputar el costo que tendría contratar a alguien que llevara a cabo las tareas que lleva ahora el voluntario. Esto no quiere decir que la forma que se pronuncia aquí como la más usada sea la más correcta. Existe otro elemento que no tienen representación en el mercado como es el tiempo de cuidado de los familiares de los pacientes. Otro elemento de relevancia a tomarse en cuenta es la forma como deben valorarse las inversiones de capital. Más adelante se mostrará en detalle como se debe hacer y los motivos del porque se debe hacer. Es muy común en intervencione y programas de salud que se sompartan insumos. Es importante tomar en cuenta este hecho para no sobreestimar o subestimar los costes de una intervención o programa. Por ejemplo si deseamos saber cuál el costo de una apendicectomía en el Hospital San Rafael donde se llevan a cabo muchas otras intervenciones quirúrgicas es necesario saber cuál es la parte (fracción) de edificio, de ambulancia, de servicios de limpieza, de tiempo de los médicos, de tiempo de las efermeras, entre otras cosas que se utilizan para una apendicectomía y que se comparten con las demás actividades médicas que se realizan en el hospital.

Cost - Benefit Analysis

What is CBA? Values the consequences of an intervention in monetary terms Enables comparison of interventions in different sectors (e.g. health vs. education vs. infrastructure) If a project as a whole produces more benefits than costs, it is worth doing it. Otherwise, no. T= Marco temporal

The results are reported in Net Present Value ¿What is CBA? The results are reported in Net Present Value NPV: enables the comparison of cash flows that differ over time T= Marco temporal

Net Present Value T NPV =  (benefitst -costst )* 1 t=0 (1+r)t

0%; Total 3,000 3%; Total 2,019 10%; Total 1,037 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0%; Total 3,000 3%; Total 2,019 10%; Total 1,037 1 5 10 15 20 25 30

NPV > 0 3% discount rate 0%; Cost 820 0%; Benefit 1960 3%; Cost 617 120 0%; Cost 820 100 0%; Benefit 1960 80 3%; Cost 617 60 40 3%; Benefit 1092 20 1 5 10 15 20 25 30

NPV < 0 10% discount rate 0%; Cost 820 10%; Cost 407 120 0%; Cost 820 100 10%; Cost 407 80 0%; Benefit 1960 60 40 20 10%; Benefit 332 1 5 10 15 20 25 30

Usefulness of CBA Technique that helps to decide if a: project program policy Will increase or diminish social welfare, valued in economic terms

Valuing benefits in Cost-Benefit Analysis

Methods for expressing non-monetary benefits in monetary terms Δ production Human Capital Revealed Preference (wage-risks studies) Contingent Valuation (willingness-to-pay) Teoría del KH:Identifica con eficacia el valor de la vida saludable con los ingresos laborales

Cost-Benefit Analysis Implementation Obstacles : Difficult and controversial to allocate monetary value to changes in, e.g.: Morbidity and mortality Educational attainment Environmental preservation

Cost – Effectiveness Analysis

Cost – Effectiveness Analysis Only useful when comparing costs and consequences of two or more alternatives Only useful when the competing alternatives produce a common result e.g.: school promotions averted chickenpox cases reduction in hr/km traveled

Cost – Effectiveness Analysis Identify a common outcome for the alternatives to be comparable Examples of effectiveness measures Intervention Effectiveness Measures Rotavirus Vaccination Averted childhood diarrhea cases or deaths Diabetes Treatment Days with glucose under control Scholarships School years concluded Water Supply Days with piped water

Steps to consider in CEA… IDENTIFICATION OF RELEVANT ALTERNATIVES CEA makes no sense when analyzing only one alternative It estimates cost per unit of effect This value alone does not tell you if an intervention is a “good buy”

Steps to consider in CEA… IDENTIFICATION OF RESULT MEASURES Intermediate Number of people who stop smoking Final Averted cases of lung cancer Averted deaths due to lung cancer or COPD El vínculo entre resultados finales e intermedios, se basa en la plausibilidad biológica de la enfermedad !! Intermedios & Finales NO son siempre relacionables.  Recomendación: Usar siempre medidas Finales si la relación con Intermedias es conocida. Si desconocida utilizar SOLO medidas Intermedias.

Steps to consider in CEA… Adverse effects of the Intervention Costing Program/Intervention Costs Averted costs Externalities (e.g. productivity losses of third parties) El vínculo entre resultados finales e intermedios, se basa en la plausibilidad biológica de la enfermedad !! Intermedios & Finales NO son siempre relacionables.  Recomendación: Usar siempre medidas Finales si la relación con Intermedias es conocida. Si desconocida utilizar SOLO medidas Intermedias.

Design Conceptual Model Flow diagram of the relevant interventions Decision Tree or other way to model the process (Markov Model) The quality of the results depends on the quality of the model Parameter uncertainty can be readily addressed, not so for uncertainty related to structure of the model

Survive Infected Die Vaccine Healthy Intervention Survive Infected Die No Vaccine Healthy

Sensitivity Analysis Model variables have different levels of uncertainty In absence of empirical data, one must make informed assumptions (e.g. about the effectiveness of new technologies) When there are methodological debates different scenarios can be modeled (e.g. discount rate, productivity losses)

Sensitivity Analysis Explores the sensitivity of the model’s results to variation in values of input parameters Tests the robustness of the conclusions by varying uncertain parameters across their “plausible” range

Sensitivity Analysis, steps to follow… Specify a plausible range across which uncertain parameters vary Take into account the known distributions of parameters based on empirical data

Types of Sensitivity Analysis Univariate Multivariate Scenarios (optimistic, baseline, pessimistic) Probabilistic Threshold Analysis

Cost-Effectiveness Measures Cost per unit of produced effect A lower cost per unit is prefered

500/200 = 2.5 average 100/10 = 10 incremental 600 500 500/200 = 2.5 average 100/10 = 10 incremental 400 Costs 300 200 100 50 100 150 200 250 Effects FIGURE 5.5 Drummond

Interpretation of Cost-Effectiveness measures Dominance Program A dominates B when its effectiveness is greater and its cost lower than program B

600 500 400 Costs B 300 200 A 100 50 100 150 200 250 Effects FIGURE 5.5 Drummond

Interpretation of Cost-Effectiveness measures Dominance Program A dominates B, when its effectiveness is greater and its cost lower than program B Extended Dominance When a combination of two programs (A & C) is more CE than another one (D)

6000 5000 4000 C D 3000 2000 A 1000 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 FIGURE 5.5 Drummond

Critic Evaluation of Articles Was a well-defined question posed in answerable form? Was a comprehensive description of the competing alternatives given? Was there evidence that the programmes’ effectiveness had been established? Were all the important and relevant costs and consequences for each alternative identified? Chapter 6. Drummond

Critic Evaluation of Articles Were costs and consequences measured accurately in appropriate physical units? Were costs and consequences valued credibly? Were costs and consequences adjusted for differential timing? Chapter 6. Drummond

Critic Evaluation of Articles Was an incremental analysis of costs and consequences of alternatives performed? Was allowance made for uncertainty in the estimation of costs and consequences? Did the presentation and discussion of study results include all issues of concern to users? Chapter 6. Drummond

Cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analyses help to decide which basket of interventions is the best to achieve a specific objective. But… not only should we know WHAT to implement, but also, HOW.

¿Why cost? Evaluate efficiency in two equivalent programs Which one provides greater benefits, given a fixed amount of resources Identify principal cost categories, to guide managers towards potential savings Forecast costs Set user fees Perform cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analyses Se requiere detectar las categorías que demanden más costos para poder estudiar en que medida podemos reducirlos o buscar alternativas que los sustituyan.

Efficient Allocation vs. Efficient Production Allocative efficiency Allocate resources to those interventions that provide the maximum “value for money” CBA & CEA Technical Efficiency Make the most of the allocated funds to each intervention Efficiency Analysis and its determinants

Production Function and Allocative Efficiency X Y X1 Y1 Y2 Benefit Investment Intervention 1 Intervention 2

Production Function and Allocative Efficiency X Y X1 Y1 Y2 Benefit Investment Intervention 1 Intervention 2

Allocative Efficiency Cost-effectiveness analyses typically assume: Results are reproducible in different contexts and scales Interventions are implemented at their efficiency frontier A “cost-effective” intervention can become very “cost-ineffective” if implemented inefficiently

Production Function and Technical Efficiency X Y X1 Y1 Y2 Y3 Benefit Investment

Technical efficiency in VCT: 17 sites in Mexico Cost per client in 17 VCT sites in Mexico $8000 $7000 $6000 $5000  10 fold  10 fold $4000 $3000 $2000 $1000 $0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Technical efficiency in VCT: 17 sites in Mexico

Potential gains from technical efficiency improvements Possible to greatly increase social welfare just by improving the technical efficiency of the interventions/programs already funded In many cases the benefit may be greater than that obtainable with a shift to a more “cost-effective” mix of interventions (allocation efficiency)

No program will be efficient if it is not well managed – and one can’t manage well what one can’t measure