Four main types of claims Issues of Definition- ex. What does it mean to be a person? Issues of Causation- ex. What is the cause of autism? Issues of Evaluation- ex. The anchor baby policy is unfair to current U.S. citizens. Issues of Recommendation- ex. Should we convert to renewable energy sources?

Using Evidence Effectively Evidence used in an argument should meet the STAR criteria: Sufficiency: Is there enough evidence? Typicality: Is the chosen evidence representative and typical? Accuracy: Is the evidence accurate and up-to-date? Relevance: Is the evidence relevant to the claim?

Sufficiency- consider the claim… “Working full time seriously harms a student’s grade point average.” This claim would require much data- examples and statistical studies- overstatement. “Working full time often harms a student’s grade point average.” A few representative examples may be enough- qualified statement.

Typicality Readers need to believe that the evidence is typical and representative rather than extreme instances.

Accuracy As a writer, you must be scrupulous in using the most recent and accurate evidence you can find. Outdated evidence will weaken your credibility.

Relevance “I deserve an A in this course because I worked extremely hard.” This evidence is not relevant to the claim. Knowing political biases of sources will help you locate data sources that both you and your readers can trust.

Kinds of Evidence Personal experience (pathos) Data (logos & ethos) Interviews (pathos) Testimony (powerful if source has credibility, but less persuasive than data) Hypothetical examples, cases, or scenarios (imaginative appeal, but must be plausible) Reasoned sequence of ideas (conceptual, linked by ideas)

Framing Statistical Evidence A proposal to build a new ballpark in Seattle, Washington, yielded a wide range of statistical arguments. All of the following statements are reasonably faithful to the same facts. How would you describe the costs of the ballpark if you opposed the proposal? If you supported the proposal?

Framing Statistical Evidence The ballpark would be paid for by raising the sales tax from 8.2 % to 8.3% during a twenty year period. The sales tax increase is one-tenth of one percent. This increase represents an average of $7.50 per person per year- about the price of a movie ticket. This increase represents $750 per five-person family over the twenty year period of the tax. For a family building a new home in the Seattle area, this tax will increase building costs by $200. This is a $250 million tax increase for the residents of the Seattle area.

Moving your audience: Ethos Be knowledgeable about your issue Be fair- show that you understand and empathize with other points of view Build a bridge to your audience- ground your argument in shared values and assumptions

Pathos: the appeal to beliefs and emotions Use concrete language to increase the liveliness, interest level, and personality of your writing- example p. 113 Use specific examples and illustrations- they provide evidence and emotional resonance- can bring to life an abstract point Use narratives- true or hypothetical- effective attention grabbers- ex. Page 39

Pathos A word about narratives- if it is too private, too sentimental, or too dramatic, it can harm ethos. Use words, metaphors, or analogies with appropriate connotations- was the city council’s decision “bold and decisive” or “haughty and autocratic”?

Kairos: The timeliness of arguments “right time,” “season,” or “opportunity” Kairos reminds us that a rhetorical situation is not stable and fixed, but evolves as events unfold or as audiences experience the psychological ebbs and flows of attention and care. Being attuned to kairos will help you “read” your audience and rhetorical situation

Audience-based reasons Enhance logos because they are built on underlying assumptions (warrants) that the audience is likely to accept. They also enhance ethos and pathos by helping the writer identify with the audience, entering into their beliefs and values.

Questions for analyzing your audience Who is your audience? How much does your audience know or care about your issue? What is your audience’s current attitude toward your issue? What will be your audience’s likely objections to your argument? What values, beliefs, or assumptions about the world do you and your audience share?

Responding to Alternative Views Listen to unfair & fair summaries- p.128 What makes the first summary unfair? In the unfair summary, what strategies does the writer use to make the opposing view seem weak and flawed? In the fair summary, how is the opposing view made strong and clear? Avoid ad hominem argument

Strategies for rebuttal Deny the truth of the data (if you have reasons to doubt) Cite counterexamples Cast doubt on representativeness of examples Cast doubt on relevancy Call into question the credibility of an authority Question the way statistical data was produced or interpreted

Conceding to opposing views Although it may seem that you weaken your own position by conceding to an opposing argument, you may actually strengthen it by increasing your credibility and gaining your audience’s goodwill. Conceding to one part of an argument does not mean that you won’t refute other parts of that argument.

Conceding to opposing views Once you make a concession, your task is then to show the benefits of your argument still outweigh the costs.