Psychology 305: Theories of Personality Lecture 3 Psychology 305
Scoring Your Questionnaire In order to score your questionnaire, you must compute 5 scores. Score 1: Sum items 1, 6, 11, 16, 21 Score 2: Sum items 2, 7, 12, 17, 22 Score 3: Sum items 3, 8, 13, 18, 23 Score 4: Sum items 4, 9, 14, 19, 24 Score 5: Sum items 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 Psychology 305
Office Hour Invitations by Student Number May 24th, 3:30-4:30, Kenny 2517 10523074 10581072 17544073 26152090 28632107 41616095 63535082 70133087 70345087 71641096
Research Methods and the Dispositional Perspective Lecture 3 Research Methods and the Dispositional Perspective 1. How are the reliability and validity of personality measures assessed? (continued) What are response sets and how do they threaten the validity of personality measures? What are traits? Psychology 305
5. Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits been developed? 4. What methods have been used to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality? 5. Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits been developed? Psychology 305
By the end of today’s class, you should be able to: 1. define content, predictive, convergent, and discriminant validity. 2. determine which forms of reliability and validity are necessary for the assessment of distinct constructs. 3. define acquiescence and socially desirable responding (SDR). 4. discuss methods to overcome acquiescence and SDR.
5. distinguish between the lexical, statistical, and 5. distinguish between the lexical, statistical, and theoretical methods of trait psychology. 6. describe factor analysis. 7. describe the five dimensions of the Five Factor Model (FFM) of personality.
How are the reliability and validity of personality measures assessed? (continued) 2. Content validity: Refers to the degree to which a measure assesses the underlying dimensions of the construct under study. E.g., Self-esteem Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale: Assumes self-esteem is unidimensional. Harter’s Self-Perception Profile: Assumes self-esteem is multidimensional; assesses self-esteem related to scholastic competence, athletic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance and behaviour. Psychology 305
Content validity is assessed in one of two ways: (a) By having experts judge the adequacy with which the measure assesses the underlying dimensions of the construct. (b) In the case of questionnaire measures, factor analyzing participants’ responses to the items. Factor analysis is a procedure that identifies items that are highly correlated with one another; each group of highly correlated items is thought to reflect a single dimension of the construct under study. Psychology 305
3. Predictive validity (or criterion validity): Refers to the degree to which a measure is able to predict the likelihood or extremity of a behaviour (i.e., a criterion) that is theoretically related to the construct under study. E.g., A self-esteem measure that is high in predictive validity should be able to predict: alcohol and drug use persistence in the face of failure number of sexual partners (i.e., sexual promiscuity) Psychology 305
4. Convergent validity: Refers to the degree to which a measure relates to measures that assess conceptually similar constructs (i.e., constructs that are theoretically related to the construct of interest). E.g., A self-esteem measure that is high in convergent validity should be correlated with measures of: depression neuroticism negative affectivity Psychology 305
5. Discriminant validity: Refers to the degree to which a measure does not relate to measures that assess conceptually dissimilar constructs (i.e., constructs that are not theoretically related to the construct of interest). E.g., A self-esteem measure that is high in discriminant validity should not be correlated with measures of: agreeableness need for cognition political attitudes (i.e., liberal vs. conservative) Psychology 305
Dep Neur NegAff Agree NCogn Polatt SE -.68 -.57 -.63 .06 .09 -.02 Often, convergent and discriminant validity are examined simultaneously; this is a powerful method by which to demonstrate the validity of a measure. E.g., Results of a study that simultaneously examined the convergent and discriminant validity of a self-esteem measure: Dep Neur NegAff Agree NCogn Polatt SE -.68 -.57 -.63 .06 .09 -.02 Psychology 305
What are response sets and how do they threaten the validity of personality measures? Response set: A tendency to respond to the items that comprise a questionnaire in a biased manner (i.e., in a manner that does not reflect the content of the items) There are two response sets that present a significant threat to the validity of personality measures. Psychology 305
E.g., Rate the item “I like to socialize” using the following scale: Acquiescence Refers to a tendency to agree with an item, irrespective of the item’s content. E.g., Rate the item “I like to socialize” using the following scale: 1 = SD, 2 = D, 3 = N, 4 = A, 5 = SA A participant who acquiesces would select “5” = Strongly Agree. Psychology 305
Remedy for acquiescence: Include an equal number of positively-keyed items and negatively-keyed items in the questionnaire. Positively-keyed items: Agreement indicates that the participant possesses the characteristic. E.g. I like to socialize. Negatively-keyed items: Disagreement indicates that the participant possesses the characteristic. E.g. I like to spend a lot of time by myself. Psychology 305
E.g., Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale I take a positive attitude toward myself (+ keyed) On the whole, I am satisfied with myself (+ keyed) I certainly feel useless at times (-) keyed At times I think I’m no good at all (-) keyed Negatively-keyed items are reverse scored (5 1, 4 2, 3 = 3, 2 4, 1 5); this prevents the participant who acquiesce from obtaining an extremely high score. Psychology 305
I take a positive attitude 1 2 3 4 5 toward myself. I certainly feel useless at times. 1 2 3 4 5 Average Score = 5 Reverse score negatively-keyed item: I take a positive attitude 1 2 3 4 5 toward myself. I certainly feel useless at times. 5 4 3 2 1 Average Score = 3 Psychology 305
2. Socially desirable responding (SDR) Refers to a tendency to respond to items in a way that promotes a favorable self-image. A pervasive problem in personality research because, for most personality characteristics, one pole is more desirable than the other. E.g., Honest vs. Dishonest Friendly vs. Unfriendly Optimistic vs. Pessimistic Psychology 305
Three remedies for SDR: (a) Administer questionnaires anonymously. (b) Use neutral items to describe positive and negative characteristics. E.g., I am friendly vs. I am comfortable talking to people who I don’t know well. (c) Use a separate measure to assess participants’ tendency to engage in SDR. E.g., Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, Paulhus Deception Scales Psychology 305
Items from the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (T/F) I never hesitate to go out of my way to help someone. (T) I have never intensely disliked anyone. (T) No matter who I’m talking to, I’m always a good listener. (T) There have been times when I was quite jealous of the good fortune of others. (F) On occasion I have had doubts about my ability to succeed in life. (F) There have been occasions when I felt like smashing something. (F) Psychology 305
Items from the Paulhus Deception Scales (T/F) Items assessing impression management: I never swear. (T) I always obey laws, even if I’m unlikely to get caught. (T) When I hear people talking privately, I avoid listening. (T) I have never dropped litter on the street. (T) I sometimes drive faster than the speed limit. (F) I have received too much change from a salesperson without telling him or her. (F) Psychology 305
Items from the Paulhus Deception Scales, Continued Items assessing self-deceptive enhancement: My first impressions of people usually turn out to be right. (T) I am very confident of my judgments. (T) I am fully in control of my own fate. (T) I always know why I like things. (T) I don’t care to know what other people really think of me. (T) It would be hard for me to break any of my bad habits. (F) Psychology 305
Dispositional Perspective: Trait Approach What are traits? According to the trait approach, personality is best described as a constellation of traits (e.g., anxious, conscientious, outgoing). Traits are viewed as descriptive summaries of behaviour. E.g., Peter is jealous. “Jealous” describes Peter’s behaviour. Psychology 305
What methods have been used to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality? Trait psychologists have used three methods to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality: 1. Lexical Method Based on lexical hypothesis: “All important differences in personality are encoded in natural language.” Psychology 305
Dominant vs. manipulative. Employs two criteria to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality: Synonym frequency: The number of synonyms that exist for a given trait reflect the importance of that trait. E.g., Dominant vs. manipulative. Psychology 305
A comparable trait does not exist in any English-speaking culture. (b) Cross-cultural universality: Traits that are represented in many languages are more important than traits that are represented in only a few languages. E.g., Trait among the Yanomamo Indians of Venezuela: Unokai = trait ascribed to a male who has achieved manhood by killing another male. A comparable trait does not exist in any English-speaking culture. Psychology 305
An atheoretical approach. 2. Statistical Method An atheoretical approach. Typically, involves collecting S-data with structured questionnaires (e.g., adjectives or statements accompanied by rating scales). The resulting data are analyzed using a statistical procedure referred to as factor analysis. Psychology 305
Factor analysis examines the correlations between all Factor analysis examines the correlations between all pairs of items and identifies groups of items that are highly correlated with one another. Each group of items that is identified is thought to reflect a single dimension of personality. Each dimension is interpreted and labeled by the researcher (a highly subjective process). Psychology 305
E.g., Results of a Factor Analysis Adjective Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Humourous .66 - .06 .19 Amusing .65 .23 .02 Popular .57 .13 .22 Hard-working .05 .63 .01 Productive .04 .52 - .19 Determined .23 .59 .08 Imaginative - .01 .09 .62 Original .13 .05 .53 Inventive .06 .26 .47 Factor label “Extraversion” “Conscientiousness” “Openness” Psychology 305
Thus, factor analysis allows the researcher to reduce a Thus, factor analysis allows the researcher to reduce a large number of personality traits to a small number of personality dimensions. Each dimension is thought of as a superordinate trait that encompasses several more narrowly defined traits. Psychology 305
E.g., Results of a Factor Analysis Adjective Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Humourous .66 - .06 .19 Amusing .65 .23 .02 Popular .57 .13 .22 Hard-working .05 .63 .01 Productive .04 .52 - .19 Determined .23 .59 .08 Imaginative - .01 .09 .62 Original .13 .05 .53 Inventive .06 .26 .47 Factor label “Extraversion” “Conscientiousness” “Openness” Psychology 305
E.g., Psychoanalytic Theory 3. Theoretical Method The traits that are most important in describing personality are identified on the basis of a pre-existing theory. E.g., Psychoanalytic Theory Anal-expulsive personality type: Disorganized, hostile, destructive. Anal-retentive personality type: Stubborn, stingy, orderly. Psychology 305
Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits been developed? Taxonomy: A classification system (e.g., Periodic Table of Elements). Over the past century, dozens of taxonomies have been proposed for personality traits. E.g., Cattell’s taxonomy Eysenck’s taxonomy In recent years, however, one taxonomy has been particularly influential—the Big 5 taxonomy of personality traits. Psychology 305
The Big 5 taxonomy emerged from decades of The Big 5 taxonomy emerged from decades of research by dozens of researchers. This research combined the lexical and statistical methods described earlier: Personality traits identified from English language dictionaries were administered to participants in the form of self-report questionnaires. The resulting data were factor analyzed in order to reduce the large number of personality traits to a small number of personality dimensions. Psychology 305
Reflects engagement with the social world. Using these methods, dozens of studies demonstrated that there are 5 personality dimensions, each of which encompasses a number of more narrowly defined traits. The 5 dimensions are: Extraversion Reflects engagement with the social world. Encompasses traits such as assertive, outspoken, talkative vs. inhibited, quiet, shy. Psychology 305
Reflects a concern with cooperation and social harmony. 2. Agreeableness Reflects a concern with cooperation and social harmony. Encompasses traits such as kind, sympathetic, understanding vs. cold, cruel, harsh. 3. Conscientiousness Reflects ability to control and regulate impulses. Encompasses traits such as meticulous, organized, practical vs. careless, disorderly, sloppy. Psychology 305
Reflects a tendency to experience negative emotions. 4. Neuroticism Reflects a tendency to experience negative emotions. Encompasses traits such as calm, optimistic, stable vs. anxious, emotional, insecure. 5. Openness to Experience Reflects an open and creative cognitive style. Encompasses traits such as artistic, intellectual, philosophical vs. uncreative, unimaginative, unreflective. Psychology 305
E.g., the Big Five Test administered in class. Today, trait psychologists tend to assess participants’ scores on the Big 5 using one of two types of measures: (a) Self-report questionnaires containing adjectives accompanied by rating scales. E.g., the Big Five Test administered in class. Psychology 305
SD = Standard deviation 25%ile and below = Low scores Big Five Test X = Mean SD = Standard deviation 25%ile and below = Low scores 75%ile and above = High scores Score 1: Openness to Experience Females X = 19.4 SD = 2.9 25%ile = 18 75%ile = 21 Males X = 20.3 SD = 2.8 25%ile = 18 75%ile = 22 Score 2: Conscientiousness Females X = 20.2 SD = 3.2 25%ile = 19 75%ile = 23 Males X = 18.8 SD = 3.3 25%ile = 17 75%ile = 21 Psychology 305
Females X = 19.0 SD = 3.5 25%ile = 17 75%ile = 22 Score 3: Extraversion Females X = 19.0 SD = 3.5 25%ile = 17 75%ile = 22 Males X = 18.8 SD = 3.5 25%ile = 16 75%ile = 22 Score 4: Agreeableness Females X = 22.2 SD = 2.6 25%ile = 21 75%ile = 24 Males X = 18.8 SD = 3.3 25%ile = 17 75%ile = 21 Score 5: Neuroticism Females X = 18.5 SD = 4.4 25%ile = 16 75%ile = 22 Males X = 16.3 SD = 4.9 25%ile = 13 75%ile = 20 Psychology 305
“I don’t find it easy to take charge of a situation.” Self-report questionnaires containing statements accompanied by rating scales. E.g., the NEO-PI-R “I don’t find it easy to take charge of a situation.” (E) “Most people I know like me.” (A) “I keep my belongings neat and clean.” (C) “I have frequent mood swings.” (N) “I enjoy trying new and foreign foods.” (O) Psychology 305
Research Methods and the Dispositional Perspective Lecture 3 Research Methods and the Dispositional Perspective 1. How are the reliability and validity of personality measures assessed? (continued) What are response sets and how do they threaten the validity of personality measures? What are traits? Psychology 305
5. Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits been developed? 4. What methods have been used to identify the traits that are most important in describing personality? 5. Has a comprehensive taxonomy of personality traits been developed? Psychology 305