1. Psychology 307: Cultural Psychology Lecture 3

2. Research Methods
What research methods do cultural psychologists use? (continued)
What unique methodological challenges do cultural psychologists encounter?

3. What research methods do cultural psychologists use? (continued)
As noted last class, there are two broad categories of methods that cultural psychologists may use when conducting research:

4. Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Quantitative Research
Type of data
Text, narrative
Numerical
Goal
To describe
To identify social regularities
Type of research
Typically inductive
Typically deductive
Methods
Unstructured
Structured
Sample size
Small
Large
Information per participant
Large quantity
Variable quantity
Type of analysis
Subjective, interpretive
Statistical, summarization
Ability to replicate
Low
High
Generalizability

5. There is increasing recognition among researchers
There is increasing recognition among researchers that qualitative and quantitative research are complementary and may be combined in a “mixed methods” approach to provide a more valid representation of the social world.
The term “triangulation of methods” has been proposed to describe the collaborative use of qualitative and quantitative research methods in a given program of study.

6. What unique methodological challenges do cultural psychologists encounter?
Cultural psychologists encounter a host of methodological challenges when conducting research. Among these challenges are the following:
1. Translating the Research Materials
It is often necessary for cultural psychologists to translate research materials into other languages.
Translation of research materials can be particularly difficult when dealing with abstract psychological concepts (e.g., emotions, traits, values).

7. Researchers have proposed the following guidelines
Researchers have proposed the following guidelines when writing questions or instructions in English. Materials written according to these guidelines are more easily translated into other languages:
 Use short sentences.  Employ the active voice rather than the passive voice.  Repeat nouns instead of using pronouns.  Avoid metaphors or colloquialisms.  Use specific terms rather than general terms.  Avoid words that are vague in nature (e.g., probably).  Avoid sentences with 2 different verbs if the verbs suggest different actions.

8. After having translated research materials, cultural
After having translated research materials, cultural psychologists must establish the “linguistic equivalence” of the original and translated versions.
Once linguistic equivalence has been established, research materials should be field tested in the culture(s) of interest to insure that participants are able to comprehend them.

9. 2. Overcoming Participants’ Response Biases
Cultural psychologists often employ questionnaires in their research. When using questionnaires to make cross-cultural comparisons, cultural psychologists must overcome a host of response biases.
A response bias is “a systematic tendency to respond to a range of questionnaire items on some basis other than the specific item content” (Paulhus, 1991).

10. When cultural groups differ in their response
When cultural groups differ in their response biases, the validity of any comparison between them is threatened.
There are several response biases that are of concern to cultural psychologists:
(a) Acquiescence Bias
Refers to a tendency to agree with questionnaire items, irrespective of their content.

11. E.g., Rate the item “I like to socialize” using the following scale:
1 = SD, 2 = D, 3 = N, 4 = A, 5 = SA
A respondent who acquiesces is likely to select “5” = Strongly Agree.
Research indicates that cultural groups differ in their tendency to acquiesce.
Remedy for acquiescence: Include an equal number of positively-keyed items and negatively- keyed items in questionnaires.

12. Positively-keyed items: Agreement indicates that
Positively-keyed items: Agreement indicates that the respondent possesses the characteristic, attitude, or belief assessed by the item.
E.g. I like to socialize.
Negatively-keyed items: Disagreement indicates that the respondent possesses the characteristic, attitude, or belief assessed by the item.
E.g. I like to spend a lot of time by myself.

13. E.g., Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale
Using the scale below, please indicate how much you disagree or agree with the following statements. Circle the appropriate number to the right of each statement.
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly disagree agree
I take a positive attitude toward myself ….
+ keyed items
On the whole, I am satisfied with myself …..
I certainly feel useless at times …..
- keyed items
At times I think I’m no good at all …..

14. Negatively-keyed items are reverse scored. In the
Negatively-keyed items are reverse scored. In the case of a 5-point rating scale, this requires that respondents scores be changed as follows:
5  1; 4  2; 3 = 3; 2  4; 1  5
By including an equal number of positively-keyed items and negatively-keyed items in questionnaires, researchers ensure that respondents who acquiesce do not obtain extremely high scores; rather their scores are neutralized.

15. Hypothetical responses to questionnaire items:
I take a positive attitude
toward myself.
I certainly feel useless at times
Average Score = 5
Reverse score negatively-keyed items:
I take a positive attitude
toward myself.
I certainly feel useless at times
Average Score = 3

16. Research Methods
What research methods do cultural psychologists use? (continued)
What unique methodological challenges do cultural psychologists encounter?