Markbands for Paper 3 The question is answered in a focused and effective manner and meets the demands of the command term. The answer is supported by appropriate and accurate knowledge and understanding of qualitative research methodology. The response demonstrates a critical understanding of qualitative research methodology applied to the stimulus material.

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods Quantitative methods demonstrate a systematic approach to the investigation of behaviour. Some aspects of behaviour are not suitable for investigation by quantitative methods and therefore qualitative methods must be used. In some cases the distinction between qualitative and quantitative approaches is difficult to determine. In Likert scales the same responses of participants can be used as either qualitative or quantitative data.

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods Strengths Limitations

To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies?

Ethics Responsibility to the profession of psychology (including the school environment) Acknowledgment of others’ work and publications Honesty in reporting results Competence of the investigator Personal conduct of the investigator Informed consent Respect for participant integrity Justification for using deception Participant’s right of withdrawal Confidentiality of findings Debriefing Use of non-human animals in research

Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research (for example, purposive sampling, snowball sampling).

Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research.

Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative research.

Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research.

Triangulation A way to make sure there is enough evidence to make valid claims. Triangulation shows the richness and complexity of behavior by studying theories from more than one standpoint. Cohen and Marion (2000) define triangulation as “the use of two or more methods of data collection in the study of some aspect of human behavior”

There are four types of Triangulation Data triangulation Investigator triangulation Theory triangulation Methodological triangulation

Data Triangulation Involves using different times, locations and participants (individuals or groups).

Investigator triangulation One example of observer triangulation is when different researchers study a topic independently and find similar results. Another example is using independent raters in content analysis research and correlating inter-rater reliability One example of observer triangulation is when different researchers study a topic independently and find similar results. Another example is using independent raters in content analysis research and correlating inter-rater reliability between the observations. between the observations.

Theory triangulation Two or more theories are sometimes combined to create a more comprehensive theory. The General Aggression Model (GAM) (Anderson and Bushman, 2002) combines social learning theory with other theories to create a more complex and realistic portrayal of aggression.

Methodological triangulation This means that a theory is investigated using a variety of experimental and non-experimental methods. The multi- method approach stands in contrast to the single-method approaches of some historical theorists. Single method verification is limited.

Explain reflexivity in qualitative research.

Non-experimental Research Interviews Observation Case Study Content Analysis

Interviews

Semi-structured Small-group interviews (focus groups) Narrative Interviews, (Conversational interviews)

Structured Interviews Structured interviews collect data with a pre- determined scale, such as a Likert scale. Structured interviews have several advantages. Structured interviews are more objectively verifiable. The researcher needs less training to administer them. Interviewer bias from emotional involvement is less likely. A disadvantage of structured surveys is that they lack the richness of less structured interview formats.

Semi-structured Interviews. Semi-structured interviews are also referred to as “structured but open-ended”. There is a fixed set of questions to ask but replies are “open-ended”. Subjects say anything they wish to the questions. Unstructured Interviews. In an informal interview the interviewer has a set of topics to follow and perhaps some specifically worded questions to ask. The interview is conducted as a friendly, natural conversation. Another style is the informal interview with no set questions and topics to cover.

Narrative interviews These interviews are conducted informally, without a fill list of pre-determined questions. The responses of the interviewer depend on what the subject says. This style of interviewing lends itself to narrative analysis. The non-structured format of the conversational interview style is a weakness. These interviews have no control to them and a subject can easily take over the interview if the researcher is inexperienced. One advantage is that subjects may feel willing to report more information than they would in a structured interview. It is a potential breach of ethics to gather information in a conversational style if participants are not informed that they are taking part in a study.

Small group interviews (focus groups) Focus groups allow for discussion between group members, which can generate a substantial amount of data. Group interaction often stimulates ideas that are missed in one-to-one interviews. A focus group might involve the families of mental health patients. The family members answer questions and generate ideas about the best way to deliver services to patients.

Discuss considerations involved before, during and after an interview (for example, sampling method, data recording, traditional versus postmodern transcription, debriefing).

Considerations involved before an Interview Training for an Interviewer Interviewers should be good listeners, logical thinkers, curious, interested, respectful of others, and they should have good memories. The best interviewer has good rapport with participants and “displays a sense of tranquility which is accompanied by a feeling of being comfort able with the interviewee and the situation” (Legard et al., 2003, p. 143).

The interviewer should learn as much as he or she can about the language and culture of participants.

Good interview questions and probes are developed. For example, interviewers should ask clear questions, avoid double-barreled questions (where two things are asked at the same time), and avoid leading questions.

Details of scheduling interviews are considered. How long will the interview last? Where should it be held? Is the setting for the interview safe for the participant and the researcher? How will data be recorded? Should anyone else be allowed to attend?

There are two things to consider about recording the interview. If the researcher stops taking notes, is this sending a message to the participant that his or comments are unimportant? If video-recording equipment is used, to what extent is it dominating the room?

Considerations involved during an interview The interviewer must create and maintain good relationships with participants.

Ethical issues are considered. Participants give consent, are guaranteed confidentiality, and are allowed to change their opinion at any time or even to end their participation.

Throughout the interview, the researcher must be aware of the fine line between showing empathy and becoming overly involved with participants. An empathetic position is best, which involves probing to find out more about the participant’s position and feelings.

The researcher may need to manage sensitive issues in two areas. First, the topic may be sensitive. The researcher may need to lessen a participant’s embarrassment or unease with empathy, such as saying, “I know this is difficult, but could you tell me... ?“ Second, a participant may show a strong emotional response, such as anxiety or anger. A researcher should not take it personally if a participant becomes upset or angry

considerations involved after an interview The researcher must ensure that the end of the interview goes smoothly. Participants should feel that their help is appreciated, should have information about finding out the results of the study, and should have information about how to withdraw data if desired.

Researchers must decide how to transcribe data. There are two choices, verbatim transcription (traditional transcription), where the exact words are transcribed and nothing else, and postmodern transcription which includes important nonverbal communications, such as voice tone, posture, and pauses.

There are two ways that interviews are transcribed. Traditional Researchers record the exact spoken words of subjects. It is quicker than the post-modern approach. Traditional transcription does not take into account the subtle and often important non-verbal communications, such as voice tone, posture, and pauses.

Post-modern This style records words and pauses, along with the “um’s”. This gives richness to traditional transcription. The researcher decides before the study which of the subtle non-verbal messages to record, such voice tone, posture, and pauses. The entire interview is recorded, not just the surface words. There are some potential weaknesses to the post-modern approach. It is desirable to have high inter- rater reliability between the transcriptions of independent raters. Interviews must also be transcribed soon after data is collected so researchers do not forget the subtleties observed in the interviews.

Researchers must code it into thematic categories. More on content analysis to come! (How exciting is that!?)

Write a report on your results! Done!

Qualitative Content Analysis Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on interview transcripts.

Step One Get familiar with the content. Watch the movie, TV, Etc. Read the book, paper, magazine, Etc. Study the content whatever it may be

Step Two If the content is not written it needs to be transcribed Which method are you going to use?

Step Three Identify and list the raw data themes Put them in a list and try to identify categories of the main idea of each Item These are sometimes very broad categories if the information is diverse, or they may be more specific if the information is not so diverse. They important thing is to reduce the data to a manageable quantity of information.

Step Four Take one sentence from each raw data theme. These are the Higher Order Themes

Step Five Write a few paragraphs on your interpretation of the data. You may need a paragraph for each of your higher order themes if you are analyzing something big. All information that is necessary for the accurate presentation of the data should be recorded. There may be some creativity in the interpretation of the data. What do you think is important, what do you think it really means. This interpretation will make your data less objective.

That’s It! You would want to reread your work to be sure that it accurately reflects your content. Rereading or re- watching the content with your interpretation in hand would probably be a good idea. You may be able to condense it down further

Interviewing has some advantages 1. Interviewing provides highly detailed information if the interviewer is well trained. Well-trained interviewers gather considerable information in follow up questions using a conversational style. 2. Interviewing allows subjects to clarify questions. Written surveys do not allow for clarification.

Disadvantages to interviewing 1. Instrumentation is a potential problem if the researcher is inexperienced. 2. Experimenter bias is a potential problem. Interviewers need a great deal of training. 3. Sometimes the cost and logistics of travel is problematic, especially if the interviewer tries to collect data from a wide range of subjects. 4. Studies using interviewers typically have limited samples, unless an approach is used. 5. Subject variables are unknown.

Observation Research Observation is used in experimental and non- experimental research. Non- experimental naturalistic observation research comes in two forms. One quantifies results with descriptive statistics (structured observation) and the other uses narration for analysis (non-structured observation). You need to know Qualitative, or non-structured observation

1 Find out what topic you want to research and gather background evidence

2 - Develop a rough research question 3 - Do bibliographic research 4 - Rephrase research question

5 - Create specific criteria for what you are going to look for when conducting the observation 6 - Determine if data will be quantitative or qualitative 7 - Determine the means of observation (covert, overt, participant, etc.) 8 - Determine the appropriate location for the observation

9 Reflexivity and avoiding bias

10 Approach sample depending on what means of observation you are using. You may need the help of a “Gatekeeper”.

11 - Conduct observation 12 - Record data related to the research question and other possible relevant factors. You may not know what is relavant at the time, and you may notice patterns late or even after the observations are complete so you should use “Thick Descriptions” and take great notes

13 Analyze data

14 You may have interviews with key participants after the observations are complete.

15 Have others check your data and question your conclusions

16 - Write report and if possible compare them to past observations 17 - Debrief participants 18 - Publish results

Hawthorne effect When subjects alter their behavior because they know they are being studied, is controlled only when researchers are participant-observers. The Hawthorne effect occurs in all obtrusive forms of research. Obtrusive methods include experiments, surveys, and all other methods where the person knows they are studied. Observations in the natural setting where subjects are unaware they are being studied are ethical only if there is no manipulation of the environment and subjects are unidentifiable in the results.

Can you think of any examples?

Turnbull – What you see is what you learned Pygmy Study Parts of both Bandura and Zimbardo’s Experiments used observation, but they were experiments, not observational studies.

Case studies Case studies follow the history and/or treatment of an individual or documents group behavior. Case studies are in-depth and focused.

Evaluate the use of case studies in research.

Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an organization or group (for example, a football team, a school, a family).

Discuss the extent to which findings can be generalized from a single case study.

Poor external validity, meaning that the results are difficult to generalize to other persons or situations, is the greatest weakness of case studies.