1. The Scientific Method in Psychology How do we collect our data?  Observation

2. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation  Observational studies are investigations where the researcher observes a situation and records what happens but does not manipulate an independent variable.

3. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation  Prior to observing, the psychologist must create a behavioural checklist (called an ethogram if observing non humans).  This checklist must name each behaviour that the psychologist is expecting to see.

4. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation  The checklist must be tested before the main observation to ensure that all potential behaviours are covered and the observers can use the checklist successfully. This is called a pilot observation.

5. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation  In observations there are two ways in which an observer can sample behaviours.  Time sampling  Event sampling

6. The Scientific Method in Psychology Time sampling  These are behaviours are recorded in specified time intervals. Three types can be used:  Instantaneous scan  Predominant activity scan  One-zero scan

7. The Scientific Method in Psychology Instantaneous scan Instantaneous scan is the behaviour that is being recorded at the start of each set time interval. For example, every 10 seconds whatever behaviour being shown by a child in the playground is recorded.

8. The Scientific Method in Psychology Predominant activity scan Predominant activity scan is where the observer records the most frequent behaviour shown by the person being observed in a set time period. (e.g. in a 10 second period).

9. The Scientific Method in Psychology One-zero scan One-zero scan is where the observer records whether each behaviour happened (1) or did not happen (0) within the time period set. Frequency of that behaviour is not recorded, just whether it happened or not.

10. The Scientific Method in Psychology Event sampling  Event sampling is where every time a behaviour is seen in the person being observed it is tallied. A set time period is decided upon before recording begins.

11. The Scientific Method in Psychology Strengths of observations in general  If participants are unaware that they are being observed then they should behave naturally, this increases the ecological validity* of the observation. * Ecological validity: refers to the extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings

12. The Scientific Method in Psychology Strengths of observations in general  As behaviours are counted and are hence quantitative, the process is objective and the data can be analysed statistically with minimal bias.

13. The Scientific Method in Psychology Weaknesses of observations in general  If participants are aware that they are being observed then they may not act naturally but show more socially desirable behaviours. This reduces the validity of findings.

14. The Scientific Method in Psychology Weaknesses of observations in general  It may be difficult to replicate the study if it is naturalistic as many variables cannot be controlled.  This reduces the reliability of the study.

15. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation  Overt  Covert  Participant  Non-participant

16. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation / Overt  Overt observation is when participants know who the researcher is and that they are being observed

17. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation / Covert  Covert observation is when participants do not know that a researcher is in the group observing them.

18. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation / Participant  This is when the researcher becomes a part of the group the researcher wishes to observe. The researcher can be overt or covert about this. The researcher interacts with participants and takes notes on behaviours, participants’ comments and any other relevant information.

19. The Scientific Method in Psychology Strengths of participant observations  Usually, the participants being observed are in a real-life setting so there is increased ecological validity*. *Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings.

20. The Scientific Method in Psychology Weaknesses of participant observations  There are ethical problems as the informed consent of those being placed into the group has not been initially sought or given  The presence of an outsider (the observer) can initially change the behaviours of the group members. This lowers the validity of findings.

21. The Scientific Method in Psychology Strengths of participant observations  As observers become involved with the group they are more likely to understand the motives and reasons for behaviours. This increases the validity of the findings.

22. The Scientific Method in Psychology Example of participant observation  A study conducted by Rosenhan in 1973, shows how participant observation was crucial in determining how staff at an insane asylum treated the inmates and led to nationwide restructuring of mental health facilities. Watch the video: “Sane in insane places”

23. The Scientific Method in Psychology Example of participant observation

24. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observation / non-participant  This is when the researcher is away from the people or animals being observed. This can also be an overt or covert process. The researcher does not interact with any of the participants.

25. The Scientific Method in Psychology Strengths of non-participant  Participants’ behaviour will not be affected by knowing they are being observed because the observers are out of sight.  Researchers’ observations are more likely to be objective as they are detached from the people they are observing

26. The Scientific Method in Psychology Weaknesses of non-participant  It can be difficult to make detailed observations and to produce qualitative data that allows understanding as to why the behaviours are occurring.

27. The Scientific Method in Psychology Structured observations  Structured observations are those where the observers have created a behavioural checklist in order to code the behaviour they are observing, for example if the researchers were interested in aggressive and affiliative play in children they would construct a behavioural checklist.

28. The Scientific Method in Psychology Structured observations  For example:  Hitting is when one person purposively makes physical contact with another (not accidental)  Hugging is when two people place their arms around each other in a non- aggressive way.

29. The Scientific Method in Psychology Structured observations  In this example the observers can then tally how many times a behaviour occurs during the time period set aside to observe. They can use time or event sampling.

30. The Scientific Method in Psychology Strengths of structured observations  The coding system (via the behavioural checklist) allows objective quantitative data to be collected. This can be analysed statistically.

31. The Scientific Method in Psychology Weaknesses of structured observations  The sampling of observed behaviour tends to be restrictive (e.g. time sampling) and does not give an idea of the reasons why the behaviours are occurring.

32. The Scientific Method in Psychology Unstructured observations  This is when observers note al the behaviours they can see in qualitative form over a period of time. No behavioural checklist is used as the observers simply record what is happening in real time.

33. The Scientific Method in Psychology Strengths of unstructured observations  These types of observations can generate in-depth, rich qualitative data that can help explain why behaviour is occurring.

34. The Scientific Method in Psychology Weaknesses of unstructured observations  Observers may easily be drawn to noticeable or eye-catching behaviours that may not fully represent all the behaviours occurring during the observation period.

35. The Scientific Method in Psychology Naturalistic / Controlled  Naturalistic observations take place in a person’s or animal’s own natural environment.  Controlled observations take place in a controlled environment. For example, during an experiment in a lab, the observers could be behind a one-way mirror.

36. The Scientific Method in Psychology Strengths of naturalistic observations  As participants are unaware that they are being watched, they should behave more naturally, removing the chances of demand characteristics affecting their behaviour.  As the observation takes place in a natural setting for participants, there are increased levels of ecological validity.

37. The Scientific Method in Psychology Weaknesses of naturalistic observations  There is very little control over extraneous variables, which makes it difficult to draw cause and effect conclusions about the observed behaviours.  Replication may be difficult as there cannot be a totally standardised procedure due to possible extraneous variables. This makes it difficult to test for reliability.

38. The Scientific Method in Psychology Strengths of controlled observations  As the set-up is controlled, the observers can be more confident about what is causing any of the behaviours shown by participants.  There is less risk of extraneous variables affecting participants’ behaviour.

39. The Scientific Method in Psychology Weaknesses of controlled observations  Carrying out the observations in an artificial setting can easily influence participants’ behavior. For example, children may be anxious in an environment that is different from their usual environment.  As the setting is artificial, the findings may lack ecological validity.

40. The Scientific Method in Psychology Quiz What is naturalistic about naturalistic observation? Subjects are not expected to be on any medication. The environment and behaviours are unaltered by researchers. Subject behaviour can be altered by the researchers, but not the environment. The environment can be altered by researchers, but not subject behaviour.

41. The Scientific Method in Psychology Quiz In what situation is naturalistic observation not the best possible methodology?. Observing how long customers spend eating at a fast food restaurant. Observing the difference between a therapy group and a control group. Observing subjects taking new treatments in order to watch out for adverse reactions. Observing driver behaviour on the road

42. The Scientific Method in Psychology Quiz Naturalistic observation is used for what kind of research? quantitative. qualitative quantitative and qualitative none of the above

43. The Scientific Method in Psychology Quiz What subjects are best suited to naturalistic observation? living human subjects living nonhuman subjects non-living subjects all of these

44. The Scientific Method in Psychology Observations Finally, we have discussed the strengths and weaknesses of observational psychology. However there is another question, can we trust what we see?

45. The Scientific Method in Psychology