Chapter 9 Motivating Across Cultures Managing Organizations in a Global Economy: An Intercultural Perspective First Edition John Saee Copyright  by South-Western, a division of Thomson Learning. All rights reserved.

FMotivation defined: Motivation is an assumed force operating inside an individual inducing him/her to choose one action or another (Hofstede 1991). Motivation is process which energizes and directs behavior (Avery & Baker 1990).

FMotivation process is universal--all people are motivated to pursue the goals they value. However the content of the process and the goals that are pursued will be influenced by culture.

F Applying Anglo Theories of Motivation  How far can a given model be applied outside the Anglo cultural context within which it was designed?

 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Level 1: physiological (existence) Level 2: safety and security Level 3: belonging and social Level 4: esteem, both self- esteem and esteem of others Level 5: self actualization and achievement

 Human needs at work Physiological needs: salary and wages. Safety needs: medical insurance, unemployment, and retirement plans. Social needs: social group contacts at work, friendships, etc.

FEsteem needs: promotions; awards; feedback leading to feelings of self- confidence, prestige, and self- importance; titles; company cars; expense accounts. Self-actualization: mastering one’s environment, setting, and achieving goals.

Identifying Needs in Another Culture  Nevis (1983): Maslow’s hierarchy has to be modified to reflect the needs in the Eastern cultures. Level l : Belonging (social) Level 2: Physiological Level 3: Safety Level 4: Self-actualization in the service of society

FHofstede (1991) on Maslow’s Theory: Meaning of self-actualization in individualist and collectivist cultures differs.  Safety (security) is likely to prevail over other needs where uncertainty avoidance is strong.

Belonginess (human relationships) will prevail over esteem in feminine cultures. In masculine culture esteem will prevail over belongingness. Other needs have to be added (like respect, harmony, face, and duty).

 The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (Herzberg 1959) Two types of motivational factors, “hygiene” factors and motivators. If the hygiene factors are absent, the employee will be dissatisfied; but their presence does not guarantee satisfaction. Only motivators lead to satisfaction.

A number of studies attempted to test Herzberg’s theory.  Hofstede (1991):  Large power distances: dependence on more powerful people is a basic need which can be a real motivator.  High uncertainty avoidance: rules may become motivators.

 Achievement Motivation Theory (McClelland 1976) Three types of motives:  Achievement  Affiliation (associating with other people)  Power

FThe profile of high achiever Hofstede (1980) The need for achievement is strongly correlated with weak uncertainty avoidance, and even more strongly with the combination of weak uncertainty avoidance and strong masculinity.

FNeed for achievement can be taught and learned. FIn high-achieving societies work goals such as autonomy, challenge, promotions, and earnings are valued. FEmployees in different cultures have different needs from their work (England 1986).

Table 3: Comparative Work Goals Work goalsGermanyJapanUSA Interesting work3 2 1 Good pay1 5 2 Good interpersonal relations Good job security2 4 3 A good match between You and your job5 1 4 A lot of autonomy8 3 8 Opportunity to learn9 7 5

A lot variety Convenient work hours Good physical working conditions Promotion Source: England (1986, P. 181)

The individual’s needs are determined by such factors as: FEarly environmental factors sex age educational levels achieved economic status

experience, including work experience organizational culture industry and sectorial factors economic and political structures national culture

FThe total mix has to be taken into account when analyzing needs and designing motivators. The manager has to decide which factors are significant in any one situation. FBecause achievement is learned, it is largely determined by the prevailing culture; therefore the changes over time are possible.

Designing motivators for another culture (Hofstede 1984, 1991) FIndividualism-collectivism dimension: Opportunities for individual promotion and growth to be valued more highly where the culture is individualist.

Autonomy to be valued more highly where the culture is individualist. Opportunities to belong to a supportive group to be valued more highly where the culture is collectivist.

FUncertainty avoidance dimension: Job security to be valued more highly where needs to avoid uncertainty are greater. Variety to be valued more highly where needs to avoid uncertainty are lesser.

FFemininity-masculinity dimensions. Quality of life and relationships between people to be valued more highly where the culture is feminine. Shorter and convenient working hours to be valued more where the culture is feminine.

F Power distance dimension. Opportunities to cooperate with peers to be valued more where power distances are lesser. Personal loyalty shown by superiors to subordinates to be valued more highly where power distances are greater.

F Monetary incentives and alternatives. FPay raise is not the only possible motivator of effective behavior. FThe alternatives to a pay raise: Encouraging promotion and growth within the organization. Showing appreciation of the work done.

Giving the employee a feeling of being in on things. Improving working conditions. Showing personal loyalty to employees.

Using tact when disciplining. Improving interpersonal relationships. Improving job security. Improving the quality of work. Giving variety in work. Giving autonomy in work.

FThe job enrichment movement Job rotation: involves planning the employee’s time so that he/she performs a variety of tasks. Job enlargement: all the tasks required to produce one unit are performed by the individual.

FJob Design Job design will be different for the same type of work depending on the quality of work life which is in turn determined by cultural profile of the country. The challenge for international manager is to adjust job design to meet the needs of the country.

Work Centrality FWork centrality – importance of work in the individual’s life relative to other areas of interest. FPerformance Evaluation Performance evaluations are complicated by different cultural values and attitudes.

 The role of feedback in individualist and collectivist societies. US employees perceive direct feedback better than Japanese or Chinese employees. U.S. workers desire more favorable feedback whereas in contrast Japanese and Chinese desire failure feedback (Bailey et al. 1997).

Negative feedback could prove quite de- motivational to an individualist. But at the same time, this could serve as constructive advice to a collectivist.