What is a Research Question? The central idea of what you wish to focus on in your research The issue you wish to proof Limited, answerable and closed

Research Question Starting point for conceptualization and operationalization Focus of the inquiry Theory based

Concept and Operation A general idea, status, behavior or action Must be “specified” to be useful in quantitative research The process and result of specification of a concept is called operationalization Examples

Concept “Richness of meaning” Cannot exemplify richness in a usable variable—can with multiple variables Example –aging operation as continuous variable or dichotomous age groups to provide operational meaning

Concept Abstract Hard to define general Must be made into defined, specific and rationally constructed therefore Operationalized to be useful

Social Class Concept has multiple dimensions Age sex income Education Reputation Occupation Index these and form a variable

Variable or Factor The operationalized concept Useful Specific Mathematically capable The result of the “process” of operationalization

Operationalization Therefore, defined as process whereby researchers specify empirical concepts that can be taken as indicators of the attributes of a concept

Variables Must be mutually exclusive Exhaustive

Data Types Demographic data age sex marital status other statuses education income

Data types Attitudes Indirect measures of behavior Actual behavior/abilities (anthropometrics) Past actions Potential actions Orientations

Levels of Measurement Nominal—two categories, naming=yields dichotomous variable Ordinal—ranks without standard intervals=yields an index which can be broken down Interval—Uses numbers to describe relationships, the levels have real relative meaning; true zero ratio—no true zero, relative only

Measurement Quality Missed responses mean decreased reliability Interviewer quality Strength of the questionnaire Reliability Validity

Reliable Repeatable Av particular technique or question, if reapplied would yield the same answer or result

Validity Extent to which a measure reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration Face validity—does it look valid logically Content validity—covers the range or dimensions of meaning Criterion-based validity—preset and universal meanings

Reliable versus valid Often a tension between the two The more valid a measure is the detailed and therefore the more confusing and lengthy—may affect the ability of the respondent to give a reasonable answer that can be converted to data that is useful

Ecological Fallacy Using units of analysis that are group based to infer individual behavior Family indicators to imply individual attitudes and behaviors

Types of Variables Explanatory Dependent Independent Intervening control

How to Write a Research Question Is in the form of a question Hypotheses are in the form of statements How do A, B, and C correlate with Y. A,B,C are independent variables Y is the dependent variable

Other Important Terms Population Sample Significance Generalizability