1. The Structure of Inquiry Research Design.
CHAPTER 4-
The Structure of Inquiry
Research Design.

2. Science- is about ‘finding out’
Making Observations and interpreting what you’ve observed

3. Research Design: plan on what you are going to observe, why, and how
1. You have to specify what you are going to find out
2. The best way to do it

4. PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
1. EXPLORATION: Conducted to explore a topic- to find out more about something.
It is not for the purpose of finding out causation or detailed explanation
It is more of a focused study conducted for the purpose of

5. 1. Researcher curiosity
2. Test the feasibility of conducting further research
3. To develop methods to be employed in subsequent studies.
In this type of research, you start from scratch, just having an idea of what it is you want to find out, then you ask and read to find out the relevant variables- the best way to identify variables is to pick the common ones that affect behavior or results like age, gender, etc

6. Shortcomings of Exploratory Studies
They seldom provide adequate answers to research questions though they hint at possible answers.

7. 2. DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
Describe situations and events e.g the US census.
Answers the questions what, when, where, how
Careful chronicle of events is also an example of descriptive studies

8. 3. Explanatory Studies Answers the question “why”
Tries to uncover cause of a particular effect.
The question: Why do some cities have higher crime rates than others?

9. Nomothetic and Ideographic Explanation
Ideographic- a complete in-depth understanding of a single case. All the causes of a given effect
Nomothetic- A few (not all) that explain the major variation (causes) of a given effect. It is not all or none, it is probabilistic. Other things being equal, x causes y.

10. CONDITIONS FOR CAUSALITY
1. CORRELATION
2.TIME ORDER
3. NON SPURIOUS
Storks and babies
Ice cream and drowning
Causation is probabilistic not complete, the cause explains variation in the effect, does not have to be total variation

11. Criteria for Nomothetic causation
1. Probabilistic not complete
2. Exceptional cases do not disprove causation
3. Can be true even if they don’t apply to the majority of cases e.g supervision and delinquency, even if most unsupervised kids do not become delinquent but the chances for becoming delinquent when unsupervised are greater, the relationship holds.

12. Necessary and Sufficient Causes
A Necessary Cause is one that must be present in order for the effect to occur e.g. In order to get a degree, you must take college courses etc.
A Sufficient Cause is one that if present guarantees the effect e.g. if you are absent on exam day, you fail the course.
The most satisfying outcome in research is discovering a cause that is at the same time necessary and sufficient

13. In nomothetic research it is seldom that we uncover sufficient causes
In nomothetic research it is seldom that we uncover sufficient causes. In idiographic research where all the various causes are laid out, it is more likely that a sufficient cause for a particular result will be uncovered.

14. Units of Analysis
What or whom to study are the Units of Analysis, can be an individual, or a group like family or whole countries etc.
Usually when we generalize to groups we generalize from individuals that have been classified as belonging to a certain group. E.g, Americans, or democrats etc Or we can study groups as individual units e.g Study of gangs or a comparative study of different countries etc.

15. Units of Analysis are those things we examine in order to create
1. summary descriptions of all such units
2. Examine differences among them
Units of analysis can be individuals, groups, organizations, social artifacts
What are social artifacts?

16. Social Artifacts are products of social beings and their behavior
Social Interactions also constitute a form of social artifact, eg. Marriages, race riots, traffic accidents etc.

17. Ecological & Individualistic Fallacy
Ecological Fallacy, something about the larger unit, is true of every single individual
Life expectancy- example
Voting/Age example.
Individualistic Fallacy is the opposite of the Ecological Fallacy. What is true of the individual is necessarily true of the group. The exception does not disprove the general rule.

18. REDUCTIONISM
EXPLAINING COMPLEX PHENOMENON IN TERMS FOR A FEW OR NARROW SETS OF CONCEPTS
E.g. ECONOMIC REDUCTIONISM.

19. TIME DIMENSION Two types of Studies:
Time is critical to determining causation
Time is also critical to generalizability of results: does the situation you uncovered today apply to ten years ago or will it apply in the future.
Two types of Studies:
Cross-Sectional Studies: observes a cross section of the population at one point in time.
Longitudinal Studies: Observe phenomenon over time. Three types?

20. Time Dimension
Longitudinal studies have an advantage over cross sectional studies, they are more accurately generalizable over time
However, Cross-Sectional studies can approximate longitudinal studies by
Using logic: smoking cigarettes vs. marijuana.
Logical Inferences when time order is clear: e.g. college grades affected by type of high school
Age difference in phenomenon
Asking people to recall the past.

21. Research Design Interest---- Idea---- Theory Academic Personal
Business
Interest---- Idea---- Theory
Conceptualization
Operationalization
Population &
Sampling
Choice of Research Method
Experiment
Survey
Field Research
Content Analysis
Existing Data Analysis
Historical/Comparative
Observations (collecting data)
Processing Data (Transforming for analysis)
Analysis
Application

22. Research Proposal elements
Problem or objective of your study
Lit review related to your problem
Who are you going to study (units of analysis and observation)
Measurement variables
What methods are you going to use
Your analysis- what techniques
Time frame
Budget
Importance of your study