Semantic Change

MoE - “kind and loving, affectionate” MoE – “pleased, delighted” MoE – “man to whom a woman is married” OE fond – “foolish, foolishly credulous” OE glad – “bright, shining” OE husband – “master of the house”

Why do words develop new meanings? What circumstances cause and stimulate their development? How do words develop new meanings? What is the nature of the very process of development of new meanings?

Semantic Change development of a new meaning change of meaning

Causes of Semantic Change Why did the word change its meaning?

Causes of Semantic Change linguistic factors extra-linguistic (historical) factors

Extra-linguistic Causes various changes in the life of the speech community changes in economic and social structures changes in culture, knowledge, technology, arts changes of ideas, scientific concepts, way of life

Extra-linguistic Causes e.g. pen Latin penna – “feather of a bird” mill – “a building in which corn is ground into flour” (primary meaning) “textile factory” (secondary meaning)

Linguistic Causes factors acting within the language system

Linguistic Causes ellipsis – a change of meaning when the meaning of a word-combination is given to only one word of this combination

Ellipsis to starve OE steorfan – “to die” – sterven of hunger Modern E starve – “to die from hunger” daily daily – “happening every day” – a daily newspaper daily – “a daily newspaper”

Linguistic Causes discrimination of synonyms – conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from other language

Discrimination of Synonyms tide OE tide – 1)”time” 2)”season” 3)”hour” from French – time, season, hour Modern English tide – “regular rise and fall of the sea caused by the moon” deer OE deor – “any beast” animal – a borrowed word deer – “a certain kind of animal”

Nature of Semantic Change How do new meanings develop? a condition for any semantic change – association between the old meaning and the new one

Two Kinds of Association similarity of meanings contiguity of meanings

Similarity of Meanings (linguistic metaphor) appearance of a new meaning as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their resemblance

Similarity of Meanings similarity of shape – e.g. head of a cabbage, teeth of a saw, bottleneck similarity of position – e.g. foot of a page, of a mountain similarity of function, behavior – e.g. a bookworm, a (minute) hand

Similarity of Meanings similarity of colour – e.g. orange, hazel, chesnut complex similarity – e.g. a leg of a table – similarity in shape, position, function

Contiguity of Meanings (linguistic metonymy) association of two referents one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it

Types of Metonymy the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object – e.g. an iron, a mink (“mink coat”) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there – e.g. the city was exited, the White House (“the administration of the USA”)

Types of Metonymy names of musical instruments may become names of musicians when they are united in an orchestra – e.g. the violin, the piano the name of some person may become a common noun – e.g. sandwich (Lord Sandwich), boycott (the Boycotts)

Types of Metonymy names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented – e.g. watt, om geographical names may be used for things produced there – e.g. china (porcelain), astrakhan (a sheep fur)

Types of Metonymy the name of a thing may be used for its content – e.g. the kettle is boiling the name of a painter is used for his masterpieces – e.g. a Matisse (a painting by Matisse)

Results of Semantic Change What was changed? change in the range of meaning

Changes in Denotational Meaning restriction of meanings (narrowing) – restriction of the types or referents denoted by the word e.g. OE “hound” – a dog of any greed Modern English “hound” – a dog used in chase extension of meanings (widening) – application of the word to wider variety of referents e.g. OE “trunk” – the main stem of a tree Modern English “trunk” – the body of anything

Changes in Denotational Meaning specialization - the word with a new meaning (restricted) comes to be used in the specialized vocabulary e.g. OE glide -“to move gently and smoothly” Modern English “glide” -to fly with no engine generalization – the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use e.g. OE “salary” – money given to soldiers to buy salt with Modern English “salary” – money paid to clerks

Changes in Connotational Meaning pejoration (degradation, degeneration) – a word acquires some negative derogatory emotive charge e.g. OE “boor”- a villager, a peasant Modern English “boor” – a clumsy or ill-bred fellow amelioration (elevation) – improvement of the connotational component e.g. OE “minister” – a servant, an attendant Modern English “minister” – a civil servant of higher rank

Other Changes of Semantic Meaning hyperbole irony euphemism taboo litotes

Hyperbole the exaggerated statement which should not be understood literally as it expresses an emotional attitude of a speaker to what he is speaking about e.g. I haven’t seen you for ages e.g. You’ll be the death for me

Irony the expression of one mening by words of opposite sense, usually it is done for the purpose of ridicule e.g. How nice! (when you are angry) e.g. A pretty mess you’ve done of it!

Euphemism referring to something unpleasant by using milder words and phrases so that a formerly inoffensive word receives a disagreeable meaning e.g. to pass away (to die) e.g. diseased (dead)

Taboo the case when it is prohibited to pronounce a word and it is replaced by another word or a word-combination

Litotes expressing the affirmative by the negative of its contrary e.g. not bad =good e.g. not small = great