1. Polysemy. Semantic Structure of the Word and Semantic Change Lecture # 7
Grigoryeva M.

2. Semantic Structure of Words
semantic structure of a word – a structured set of interrelated lexico- semantic variants
semantic structure of a word – combination of various meanings

3. FIRE I
Flame
II III IV V
Destructive Burning smth The shooting Strong feeling
Burning in a fire of guns passion
Forest fire Camp fire To open fire Speech lacking fire
I main meaning
II-V secondary meanings

4. Types of semantic components
Leading component – denotative component
(expresses the conceptual content of a word)
Additional component- connotative component
(gives more full picture of the meaning of a word)

5. denotative component + connotative component
Lonely alone, without company
sad (emotive
connotation)
To glare to look
(connotation of
+ lastingly duration)
+ with anger (emotive)

6. To glance to look
+ briefly (duration)
To shiver to tremble
+ lastingly (duration)
+ with the cold (cause)
To shudder to tremble
+ briefly (duration)
+ with horror (emotive)

7. Types of Lexical Meanings as Elements of a Word’s Semantic Structure
Primary : : secondary
basic : : minor
central : : peripheric
direct : : figurative
general : : particular
abstract : : concrete
neutral : : coloured
present day : : archaic

8. Semantic change “HUSBAND”
Modern English – “a man to whom a woman is married”
Old English –
“a master of the house”

9. Semantic Change development of a new meaning change of meaning
Causes of Semantic Change
linguistic factor
extra-linguistic (historical) factors

10. Extra-linguistic Causes
various changes in the life of the speech community
changes in economic and social structures
changes in culture, knowledge, technology, arts
changes of ideas, scientific concepts, way of life
EX. pen penna (Latin) “feather of a bird”

11. Linguistic Causes factors acting within the language system
ellipsis – a change of meaning when the
meaning of a word-combination is given to only
one word of this combination
EX (Old English) a train of carriages= a row of carriages
(Modern English) a train of carriages

12. Changes in Denotational Meaning
restriction of
meanings
(narrowing) –
restriction of the
types or referents
denoted by the word
OE “hound” – a dog of any greed
Mo E “hound” – a dog used in chase
extension of meanings (widening) –
application of the
word to wider variety
of referents
OE “trunk” – the main stem of a tree
Mo E “trunk” – the body of anything

13. Changes in Denotational Meaning
specialization - the
word with a new
meaning (restricted)
comes to be used in the
specialized vocabulary
OE glide -“to move gently and smoothly”
Mo E “glide” -to fly with no engine
generalization – the
word with the extended
meaning passes from the
specialized vocabulary
into common use
OE “salary” – money given to soldiers to buy salt with
Mo E “salary” – money paid to clerks

14. Changes in Connotational Meaning
pejoration (degradation)
– acquiring some negative derogatory emotive charge
. OE “boor”- a villager, a peasant
Mo E “boor” – a clumsy or ill- bred fellow
amelioration (elevation) – improvement of the connotational component
OE “minister” – a servant, an attendant
Mo E “minister” – a civil servant of higher rank

15. Polysemy
The ability of words to have more than one meaning is described as polysemy
A word having several meanings is called
polysemantic
Words having only one meaning are called
monosemantic
(mainly scientific terms)

16. Polysemy: Meaning and Context
Customer I would like a book, please.
Bookseller Something light?
Customer That doesn’t matter. I have my car with me.

17. BRIGHT
Bright colour (dress, flower) intensive in colour Bright metal (gold, silver) shining Bright student (boy) capable Bright face (smile, eyes) happy

18. Types of Contexts contexts linguistic, or verbal extra-linguistic, or
non-verbal
lexical
grammatical

19. Types of Contexts
extra-linguistic context – a real speech situation in which the word is used
EX. “I’ve got it” – 1) possess
2) understand

20. Types of Contexts grammatical context –
where grammatical structure of the context serves
to determine various individual meanings of a
polysemantic word
EX to make
1)“to force, to induce” – make somebody do something
“make + smb+ bare infinitive”
2) “to become, to turn out to be” – make a good wife
make + adjective + noun

21. Types of Contexts
lexical context – the group of words which fill the grammatical pattern which forms the environment of the analyzed word
EX.
heavy -”of great weight, weighty” – heavy load, heavy table
heavy + natural phenomenon = “striking, falling with force” –
heavy rain, heavy wind

22. Meaning and Usage V.V. Vinogradov
Meanings are fixed and common for all people
Usage is a possible application of one of the meanings of a polysemantic word
Meaning is not identical with usage

23. A lexico-semantic variant (LVC)
A.I. Smirnitsky
A lexico-semantic variant (LVC)
(a two-facet unit двусторонняя единица )
Formal facet Content facet
(sound-form) (one of the meanings)
The semantic centre
Is the part of meaning which remains constant in all
lexico-semantic variants of the word

24. Dull LVC 1 - boring EX: a dull book LVC 2 - stupid EX: a dull man
LVC not bright EX: a dull day, a dull color
LVC not loud EX: a dull sound
LVC not sharp EX: a dull knife
The semantic centre – implication of deficiency
LVC 1 – deficient in interest
LVC 2 – deficient in intellect
LVC 3 – deficient in in light or color
LVC 4 – deficient in sound
LVC 5 – deficient in sharpness

25. Polysemy: Meaning and Context
the meaning of a word in speech is contextual – depends on the context
meaning is determined by the context
context – the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word
context individualizes the meanings, brings them out

26. Diachronic Approach to Polysemy
growth and development in the semantic structure of the word
the word retains its previous meanings and at the same time acquires new ones
some of the old meanings may become obsolete or disappear

27. Diachronic Approach to Polysemy
primary meaning – the first meaning with which the word appeared in the language
secondary meaning – could appear only after the primary meaning
derived meaning – could not have appeared before primary meaning was in existence and is dependent on it

28. Identify the meanings of the words
Face
The front part of a head
She has a pretty face
The front part of a structure
The face of that building is grey.

29. Heart The organ that pumps blood He has a weak heart.
The important / central issue
The heart of the matter
Kindness
She has a kind heart and helps people
One’s deepest feelings
He knew in his heart that he was wrong

30. Nose The part of a face for smelling and breathing
She has a straight nose.
The forward part of certain thing
The nose of a plane
Sense of smell
Dogs have good noses.
Excessive interest
He’d better keep his nose out of my business.
Special ability to find
The detective had a nose for tracking criminals.

31. Synchronic Approach to Polysemy
coexistence of various meanings at the same historical period of the development of the language

32. Synchronic Approach to Polysemy
basic/ central meaning – the meaning that first occurs to us whenever we see or hear a word, occurs in different contexts, has the highest frequency
minor/ marginal meaning – less frequent, observed only in certain contexts

33. Synchronic Approach to Polysemy
a table - “ a piece of furniture” – central meaning
a table - 1)people seated minor/
at a table for a meal; marginal
2)food provided meanings
at a table

34. Smart He is really smart, he is at the top of the class.
Intelligent, able to think well
The child made a smart remark to his father and was sent to bed immediately.
Rude
He wore a smart suit and new leather shoes.
fashionable, neat

35. Nature of semantic change
similarity of meanings
(METAPHOR)
contiguity of meanings
(METONYMY)

36. Similarity of Meanings- METAPHOR
appearance of a new meaning as a result of associating two objects (phenomena, qualities, etc.) due to their resemblance

37. Metaphor EX head of a cabbage, teeth of a saw, bottleneck
similarity of shape
EX head of a cabbage, teeth of a saw, bottleneck
similarity of position
EX foot of a page (of a mountain)
similarity of function, behavior
EX a bookworm, a (minute) hand
similarity of colour
EX orange, hazel, chesnut
complex similarity
EX a leg of a table – similarity in shape, position, function

38. Contiguity of Meanings - Metonymy
association of two referents one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it

39. Types of Metonymy
the material of which an object is made may become the
name of the object
EX an iron, a mink (“mink coat”)
the name of the place may become the name of the
people or of an object placed there
EX the city was exited, the White House (US administration)
names of musical instruments may become names of
musicians when they are united in an orchestra
EX the violin, the piano

40. Types of Metonymy names of inventors often denote things they invented
EX watt, om
geographical names may be used for things produced there
EX china (porcelain), holland (linen fabrics)
the name of a painter is used for his masterpieces .
EX a Matisse (a painting by Matisse)
the name of some person may become a common noun
sandwich (Lord Sandwich), boycott (the Boycotts)

41. Secondary Ways of Semantic Changes
hyperbole
irony
euphemism
taboo
litotes

42. EX I haven’t seen you for ages
Hyperbole
the exaggerated statement which should not be understood literally as it expresses an emotional attitude of a speaker to what he is speaking about
EX I haven’t seen you for ages
It’ll be the death for me

43. Irony
the expression of one meaning by words of opposite sense, usually it is done for the purpose of ridicule
EX How nice! (when you are angry)
A pretty mess you’ve done of it!

44. Euphemism
referring to something unpleasant by using milder words and phrases so that a formerly inoffensive word receives a disagreeable meaning
EX. to pass away = to die

45. Taboo
the case when it is prohibited to pronounce a word and it is replaced by another word or a word-combination
EX nigger- Afro American

46. Litotes expressing the affirmative by the negative of its contrary
EX. not bad = good
not small = great

47. Results of Semantic change
Change of the Change of the
denotational meaning connotational meaning
Restriction Extension
of meaning of meaning
Deterioration Amelioration
of meaning of meaning

48. Restriction of meaning - “hound”:
“a dog of any breed” “a dog used in chase”
(if a word with a new restricted meaning comes to be used in
the specialized vocabulary of some limited group within the
speech community it is usual to speak of the specialization of
meaning)
Extension of meaning “target”:
“a small round shield” “anything that is fired at”
(if the word with the extended meaning passes from
specialized vocabulary into common use, it is generalization of

49. SPECIALIZATION
Common Specialized
vocabulary vocabulary
GENERALIZATION

50. Results of Semantic change
Change of the Change of the
denotational meaning connotational meaning
Restriction Extension
of meaning of meaning
Deterioration Amelioration
of meaning of meaning

51. Amelioration of meaning implies the improvement of the connotational component of meaning
Minister : “a servant” “a civil servant of higher rank”
Deterioration of meaning implies the acquisition by the word of some derogatary emotive charge
Boor : “a peasant” “ a clumsy or ill bred fellow”

52. PRACTICE
Define the kind of association involved in the semantic change
Example: Glass
(a transparent solid substance used for making windows)
(a container for drinking made of glass) metonymy

53. 1. Jean Jeans (Heavy cotton cloth) (Trousers made of denim) metonymy 2
1. Jean Jeans (Heavy cotton cloth) (Trousers made of denim) metonymy 2.The wing of a bird the wing of a building metaphor 3.The foot of a person the foot of a mountain 4.Copper copper (metal) (coin)

54. Loan 1.A gift from a superior
Analyze the meaning of the words. Identify the result of changes of denotational aspect of the meaning
Loan
1.A gift from a superior
2.A sum of money which is borrowed and has to
be paid back
Restriction of meaning ----specialization

55. Girl “A small child of either sex” “A small child of female sex” Restriction of meaning---specialization Camp “A place where troops are lodged in tents” “A place where people live in tents or huts” Extension of meaning-----generalization Room ‘Space” “A part of division of a building”

56. Fly ‘To move with wings’ “To move through the air or in outer space” Extension of meaning-----generalization Champion “a fighting man” “a person who has defeated all rivals in a competition” Restriction of meaning---specialization Rug “rough wooden stuff” “a small rug”

57. Analyze the meaning of the words
Analyze the meaning of the words. Identify the result of changes of connotational aspect of the meaning
Example:
Villian
1.”a feudal serf”
2. ‘a person guilty or capable of a crime”
The word acquired a derogatory emotive charge--- --deterioration of meaning

58. Knight ‘man servant” “noble man” Amelioration Cunning “possessing erudition or skill” “clever at deceiving” Deterioration Fond “foolish, infatuated (лишившийся рассудка)” “loving, affectionate”

59. Coarse “ordinary, common” “rude or vulgar” Deterioration Violent “having a marked or powerful effect” “using or involving physical force intended to hurt someone” Marshal “Manservant attending horses” “an officer of the highest rank” Amelioration

60. Read the sentences and give all the lexico-semantic variants consulting the semantic structure of the word
The book tries to give simple explanations of scientific ideas.
(easy to understand)
Sally likes clothes that are simple but elegant.
(plain without decoration)
The simple fact is that he wants a divorce.
(not complicated by anything else)
Archeologists found several simple tools at the site.
(with only one or two parts)
I’m just a simple farmer.
(ordinary)
You may be joking but she is simple enough to believe you.
(easily tricked)
I’m afraid old Jack is a bit simple.
(weak-minded)

61. Define the meaning
I walked into park, fell flat upon the grass and fell asleep.
I thrust my hand through the bars, the dog liked me.
At the end of a long bar, leaning against the counter was a slim
pale individual wearing a red bow-tie.
I sat down with my head in my hands.
The minute hand jumped at twelve.
I began to search the flat for the key.
The authority of his voice set the key for the newspaper report.