What words should learners focus on? 1

Task and Discussion: What criteria can we use in selecting words for learners? Other than frequency, what criteria can we use to decide which words our learners should learn?

3 Words that learners should focus on Usefulness Frequently used (frequency); high-frequency words need to be learnt both receptively and productively whereas low- frequency words can be learnt receptively Used in a wide range of topics/domains (range) Related to the personal experience Ease of learning Words that look familiar to students, e.g. “quiet” as an adjective > “quiet” as a verb) Words made up of some familiar word parts (prefixes, roots, suffixes), e.g. prepare, predict, precede Relevance to students’ needs specialized or technical words related to a particular discipline that the student is studying

4 Vocabulary teaching and learning Implict vs. Explicit learning of vocabulary A balanced approach to vocabulary teaching (Nation, 2008) Contextualized and decontextualized vocabulary learning The lexical approach to vocabulary learning & teaching Assessing vocabulary

Discussion How would you define “incidental” (or “implicit”) and “explicit” (or “deliberate”) vocabulary learning? What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches? Can you think of possible reasons why incidental learning has been found to lead to little vocabulary gains in research studies? Do you believe in the benefits of extensive reading? What strategies do teachers in your school typically use to teach vocabulary? 5

Implicit vs. Explicit Vocabulary Learning 6

7 Can incidental learning of vocabulary (alone) lead to gains in vocabulary size (quantity) and vocabulary knowledge (quality)??? Natural exposure to language (through listening or reading) when focus is on understanding meaning of the text (not the vocabulary) A few pre-requisites L2 vocabulary size ( words to achieve 95% coverage of texts) Knowledge about how to guess word meaning from context Reading / Listening material must be rich in contextual clues The number of repetitions of the target vocabulary in the reading Some training needed

8 Pre-requisite for incidental learning of vocabulary Before learners can begin learning a language through reading texts intended for adult native speakers, they need a threshold size of word families. TargetCumulative target KS1 (Pri 3) KS2 (Pri 6) KS3 (Sec 3) KS4 (Sec 6)

9 Extensive Reading using Graded Readers Benefits Fun; pleasurable Increase exposure to language; increase comprehension Exercises help practice new vocabulary and grammar Graded: according to number of headwords (words most needed by students); word frequencies; length Resource package: exercises and keys; ideas on how the readers can be used

10 Incidental learning of vocabulary through reading / listening Horst, Cobb & Meara, 1998 Very little vocabulary gains (average: 1 word out of words) made from reading alone - low scores in vocabulary quizzes given to students after their reading (Zahar, Cobb & Spada, 2001; Horst, Cobb & Meara, 1998) Upside: useful for revisiting / consolidating words learnt before; improve “depth” of vocab knowledge; develop intuition for collocation Downside: massive amount of input required; intention to remember the language is usually absent More effective if accompanied by vocabulary-focused exercises / quizzes / glosses Acquisition through reading should be supplemented by direct vocabulary teaching or instructionally enhanced reading (Zahar, Cobb & Spada 2001)

Summary 11 Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P. (1998). Beyond a clockwork orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Langauge, 11 (2), Zahar, R., Cobb, T., & Spada, N. (2001). Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual richness, The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(4),

Zahar, Cobb,and Spada (2001) 144 male Grade 7 ESL students 144 male Grade 7 ESL students Heard a story being read aloud in class, while reading it Heard a story being read aloud in class, while reading it Story contained 2,098 words (91% from the 1,000 word level) Story contained 2,098 words (91% from the 1,000 word level) Post-test showed an average gain of 2.16 words out of the 30 words being tested, when compared to scores in the pre-test which was exactly the same test. Post-test showed an average gain of 2.16 words out of the 30 words being tested, when compared to scores in the pre-test which was exactly the same test. The weakest group of students learned one word per 1,000 words read (probably takes 29 years to learn 2,000 words!!) The weakest group of students learned one word per 1,000 words read (probably takes 29 years to learn 2,000 words!!) Frequency is most determining – the most learned words appear most frequently in the story (7 times) Frequency is most determining – the most learned words appear most frequently in the story (7 times) Zahar, R., Cobb, T., & Spada, N. (2001). Acquiring vocabulary through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual richness, The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(4),

Zimmerman, 1997 L2 students attending university-preparatory intensive English programs were asked to read some materials required for the course divided into two groups: Experimental group: received 3 hours a week of vocabulary instruction related to the required reading (e.g. group discussion using the vocabulary; creating sentences using the vocabulary; repeated exposures) Control group: did the reading only the experimental group had a higher mean score in the vocab post-test (of UWL words) Zimmerman, C. B. (1997). Do reading and interactive vocabulary instruction make a difference? An empirical study, TESOL Quarterly, 31(1),

Words that students should learn explicitly First 2,000 words 80% of text coverage First 2,000 words + AWL 90% of text coverage First 2,000 words + AWL + Technical vocab 95% of text coverage of a text that a student would typically read First 2,000 words + AWL + Technical vocab + most frequently used prefixes, roots and suffixes 14

Most frequently used prefixes

16 Explicit (Deliberate) learning of vocabulary Attention directly focused on learning of vocabulary Upside: greatest chance for acquisition Downside: time consuming to learn a large number of words; laborious

17 Implicit vocab learning (e.g. thru extensive reading) Explicit vocab learning For revisiting learnt words to deepen word knowledge For students to learning low-frequency words by themselves For learning grammatical and collocational patterns For understanding the actual meaning of the word / different senses of a word  Very little deliberate attention on the words > low retention  Students may not be able to guess meaning from context high-frequency words should be taught explicilty (e.g. the GSL or AWL words) (Nation, 1990) difficult, confusing words should be taught explicitly (Sokmen, 1997) Some research shows students can learn a large amount of vocab using word lists with L1 translations in a short time (Nation, 1990), so perhaps list-learning is good for initial acquisition of high- frequency words Focusing students’ attention, but word lists or word cards should only be used as an initial stage of learning; should be followed by learning words in context through reading and listening (Schmitt & Schmitt, 1995)  Takes up class time

Pre-session 1 Reading A balanced approach to vocabulary teaching (Nation, 2008)* Each component should take up a quarter of the curriculum: Each component should take up a quarter of the curriculum: *Chapter One, Nation, I.S. P. (2008). Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniques. Boston: Heinle Cengage Learning. 18

19 Post-session 3 reading: Sökmen (1997) Build a large sight vocabulary (e.g. GSL, AWL) Build a large sight vocabulary (e.g. GSL, AWL) Integrate new words with old (e.g. gradable antonyms on a scale; from general words to precise words; semantic maps) Promote a deep level of processing Provide a number of encounters with a word (6-20 times; successful recall leads to longer retention) Facilitate imaging (e.g. mental pictures; mind maps) Making new words “concrete” by connecting them to student’s world in some way (e.g. personal feelings, personal examples, current issues, pictures, videos, real objects & situations) Use a variety of techniques (e.g. dictionary work, word parts activities, using rhymes, semantic grids, semantic maps,...etc.) Encourage independent learning strategies

20 Sight vocabulary Words that students can recognize instantly in reading Do not need any decoding or pictorial clues children with a large sight vocabulary can read more fluently and comprehend texts more easily

For very young / elementary learners The most basic / frequent words should be taught by sight Repeated encounters in reading / wall postings ( high-frequency-words-mcnally-murray.html ) E.g. McNally & Murray’s 200 High Frequency words ( high-frequency-words-mcnally-murray.html ) high-frequency-words-mcnally-murray.html high-frequency-words-mcnally-murray.html 21

The Ladybird Key Words Reading Scheme (Peter and Jane books) E.g. The first book uses the 12 key words repeatedly ("Here is Peter", "Peter is here", "Here is Jane", "Jane is here", "I like Peter", "I like Jane"). rds_reading_scheme.php rds_reading_scheme.php 22

Integrate new words with learnt words gradable antonyms on a scale e.g. cold …. warm e.g. rich … poor from general words to precise words; semantic maps e.g. nice e.g. important 23

24 Depth of Processing Hypothesis (DOPH) Deeper analysis of stimulus  More persistent memory trace  Better recall

Shallow vs Deep Processing Considered to be shallow: Rote memorisation of word lists Rote memorisation of word lists Verbal / written repeitition Verbal / written repeitition Considered to be deeper: Contextual guessing Contextual guessing Association / Grouping of words Association / Grouping of words Making mental images of words Making mental images of words Using newly learnt words in speaking / writing (activation of newly learnt words) Using newly learnt words in speaking / writing (activation of newly learnt words) 25

Rhyming words in songs / poems 26

Rhyming words in songs / poems

Learning Word Parts 1. Prefix: added to the front 2. Root: carries main meaning 3. Suffix: changes part of speech Trans / port / ation prefixroot suffix

How many words can you make? pre- re- inter- omni- -scient -cede -tain -scribe -vene bene- con- -fit sub-

Some word parts and their meaning Reference: Click on “root chart” & “root search”

Resources for learning word parts Roots of English Free software to help you learn more about the Latin and Greek roots of English words. It gives you a test on the words you have looked up before you exit! Roots of English Free software to help you learn more about the Latin and Greek roots of English words. It gives you a test on the words you have looked up before you exit! Roots of English Roots of English 31

Helping students with confusing words 32

THE LEXICAL APPROACH 33

Teaching multiword units as individual units (e.g. Nattinger & DeCarrico, 1992; Sinclair, 1996; Lewis, 1997) X Make a walk in the countryside. Enjoy the cool wind! Take a walk in the countryside. Enjoy the cool breeze! X The report will give recommendations at the end. The report will make recommendations at the end. Lexical chunks are socially sanctioned independent units (the units can be words or phrases or sentences) Lewis advocates de-emphasizing teaching of grammar and vocabulary in favor of teaching of lexical chunks.

Lexical items (Lewis, 1997) (1) (1) Words (e.g. pen, ball) (2) (2) Polywords (e.g. so to speak, at any rate, by and large, by the way) (3) (3) Collocations (hitch a ride, make a wish, catch a bus, take a walk) (4) (4) Institutionalized utterances (mainly spoken, e.g. Long time no see! How do you do? If I were you, I’d…, Give me a break! As far as I know) (5) (5) Sentence frames and heads (mainly written, e.g. I think that …., not only…. but also…., That reminds me of …).

Why is it useful to learn multilexical units? To improve fluency To recognize collocational patterns (e.g. take a walk, make a wish, have dinner) To sound more native-like / natural

Learning lexical chunks (lexical patterning) Topic: Health – Symptoms I’ve gota headache (a) backache (a) stomach-ache toothache a pain in my chest a pain in my leg a sore throat a cough a temperature (a fever) I feelsick illunwell I’m going to be sick! faint! faint!

When recording vocabulary, note collocation patterns… PatternExamples NOUN + VERBpeople - slip / cars – skid VERB + NOUNabandon - ship, make – a wish, catch – a bus ADJECTIVE + NOUNhandsome – man, beautiful - woman

Emphasize the combination of words PEOPLEACTIONOBJECTPLACE doctorexaminepatientshealth centre restaurant train station park

Emphasize the combinability of words PEOPLEACTIONOBJECTPLACE doctorexaminepatientshealth centre customers waiters dine servecustomers restaurant train driverpull uptraintrain station gardenergrow / trimplantspark

Teaching Collocation in an economics class using a reading text 41 to offsetpower economictaxes to cutcollapse runningthe decline spendinga deficit to boostgrowth to raisebudget mountingspending sustainabledemand Matching exercise:

Teaching Collocation in an economics class using a reading text 42 to offsetthe decline economiccollapse to cutspending runninga deficit spendingpower to boostdemand to raisetaxes mountingbudget deficits sustainablegrowth Answers:

The Lexical Approach Pre-session 3 Reading: Moudraia, O. (2001) Lexical approach to second language teaching. Available: Post-session 3 Reading: Lewis, M. (1997) Pedagogical implications of the lexical approach. In J. Coady and T. Huckin (eds.) Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp Let’s try some of the tasks near the end of this reading

LEARNING VOCABULARY IN CONTEXT 44

Context Co-text: words before and after the target word The real-world context that the text refers to What are the benefits of using decontextualized word lists? What information can the context gives us that cannot be given by decontextualised word lists? Learning grammatical and collocational patterns Understanding the actual meaning of the word / different senses of a word 45

Presenting words in context Better show students: It was so stifling in the room that I could hardly breathe. Rather than: It was stifling in the room. Better say: There’s a word in the first line that means “huge”. What word is that? Rather than: “Enormous” in the first line means huge.

Provide rich contextual clues - answers Carnivorous Vehicles Huge / enormous Mean / stingy Cut Reduced / offset / compensated for Revenue / income / money; afford

Providing context rich in contextual clues Since plastic products are non-biodegradable, they are hard to be disposed of and are persistent environmental contaminants. To explain more clearly the data collection process, I append some samples of questionnaires used in the study. It is time we stopped talking of elephants as if they were a commodity; they are not products / mechandise to be traded. 48

Preparation for next session Jigsaw reading: Jigsaw reading: In a group of 4, each student reads one of the pre- session 4 texts about vocabulary learning strategies In a group of 4, each student reads one of the pre- session 4 texts about vocabulary learning strategies Report to your group next week: Report to your group next week: 1. Methodology used in the research 2. Results of the research 49