Traditional African Society =

1000 different languages; 1000+ different tribes

Early African Societies

Early African Societies Anthropologists think that the first humans lived in East Africa. Over thousands of years, people spread out over the continent, forming distinct cultures and societies. During early phase of their history, Africans lived as hunter-gatherers About 9,000 years ago, some began to grow native crops In some parts, pastoralism, practice of raising herd animals, arose before farming Early Farming Societies First farmers likely pastoralists of Sahara—wetter 8,000 years ago 5,000 years ago climate changed, Sahara became drier As land became desert, people migrated to Mediterranean coast, Nile Valley, parts of West Africa Pastoralists in Sahara By about 2500 BC many people in these regions practiced herding and mixed farming.

Stateless Societies Function of mobile population, underpopulation, and land as resource Even when dense population, there was no state Hunters valued over warriors Ideal was the large complex household with Big Man surrounded by 10-40 people Control happened laterally, not hierarchically (secret societies, age-grade societies, ritual experts as mediators)

What are some characteristics of a stateless society? Society divided into lineages – group traces its collective ancestry to a common ancestor Authority is balanced among the various lineages – families. No single group holds a majority of power. Operate through sharing of ideas and possessions, and cooperation is how they assume that society will operate.

HOME Stateless Societies Lineages share power Elders negotiate conflict No centralized authority Age-set system continued . . .

Characteristics of Traditional Tribal Life

Tribes a political group that comprises several bands or lineage groups, each with similar language and lifestyle and occupying a distinct territory

Common Traits or Characteristics of Traditional African Tribal Life The good of the group comes ahead of the good of the individual. All land is owned by the group. Strong feeling of loyalty to the group. Important ceremonies at different parts of a person’s life. Special age and work associations. Deep respect for ancestors. Religion is an important part of everyday life. Government is in the hands of the chiefs [kings].

An African’s “Search for Identity” 1. Nuclear Family 2. Extended Family 3. Age-Set 4. Clan 5. Lineage (ancestry) TRIBE (communal living)

Social Structures Common Features Many societies developed village-based cultures At heart, extended family living in one household Families with common ancestors formed clans to which all members loyal Age-Sets In some areas, people took part in type of group called age-sets Men who had been born within same two, three years formed special bonds Men in same age-set had duty to help each other Specific Duties Loyalty to family, age-sets helped village members work together Men hunted, farmed; women cared for children, farmed, did domestic chores Even very old, very young had own tasks; elders often taught traditions to younger generations

On your Left Side: Draw the following pyramid on the next slide and add the information to the diagram.

Structure of African Society Kinship – Relationship to individual relatives Family – Related members of a group Clan – Group made up of related families Tribe – Group made up of related clans

Definitions Tribe- group of people that share language, customs, traditions, geographic location Clan- group of related families Extended family- parents, children, aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents (common in Africa) Nuclear family- parents and children (not common in Africa )

Kinship and Family Ties

How people are related in traditional African society? Kinship: means a relationship that binds two or more individuals Blood relative Marriage

What is kinship? Sense of being related to another person(s) Set by rules (sometimes laws) Often taken for granted as being “natural” rather than cultural Cultures define “blood” relative differently

Kinship Includes relationships through blood and through marriage. Functions: Provides continuity between generations. Defines a group on whom a person can rely for aid.

Family Ties Farming and herding societies consisted of extended families Kinships created strong bonds and a sense of community http://www.ulricianum-aurich.de/lk/knots/bilder/knoten_k.jpg

Lineage: Lines of Descent

Lineages •Some societies group people in lineages—those with common ancestor Members of a lineage have strong loyalties to one another In some African societies, lineage groups take the place of rulers These stateless societies balance power among lineages Stateless societies—no centralized system of power

Lineage Means line of descent or family tree

Inheritance and Descent The Ashanti people believed the child’s blood came entirely from the mother Uncle is more important than the father Matrilineal Oldest son is the head of the family Oldest son was the inheritor Patrilineal

Patriarchal: Male-Dominated society very common in African tribes

Patrilineage Descent is traced through male lineage. Inheritance moves from father to son, as does succession to office. Man’s position as father and husband is the most important source of male authority. Example: Nuer or Sudan.

Patrilineal Descent Found among 44% of all cultures Kinship is traced through the male line Males dominate position, power and property Girls are raised for other families Found in East and South Asia and Middle East

Matriarchal: female Dominated society uncommon

Matrilineage Descent is traced through the female line. Children belong to the mother’s descent group. The inclusion of a husband in the household is less important. Women usually have higher status. Example: Hopi.

Matrilineal Decent Found among 15% of all cultures Kinship is traced through the female line Women control land and products Found in the Pacific, Australia, small parts of Mediterranean coast Declining though capitalism

Status and Roles of Women

Status of Women Societies that valued women Women could be leaders Women were the teachers of the family Were respected because the bore children Bride Wealth paid to brides family Societies that did not value women Women did the planting, weeding, and harvesting In some societies men married many women [polygamy] Viewed a wife as property of the husband

Roles of Women An African woman's roles are as life bearer, nurturer, and source of generations. For an African woman in a traditional rural community, the chief measure of success in life is her ability to bear many children. The very existence of the family and clan depends on women's ability to bear children, who will provide security for their parents in old age and who will continue to nourish the spirits of the ancestors through sacrificial offerings. As a result, much African art is directed toward encouraging the fertility of women. Many shrines are devoted to spirits that provide the blessings of fertility, and these frequently contain sculpture and other objects devoted to the concept of fertility.

Little Girl’s Dolls-Preparing for Role of Adult Woman Like children everywhere, African children play with toys that help them visualize their roles as adults and teach them the skills of parenting, hunting, and farming. At the end of a day of trading and shopping a parent may stop at the blacksmith's stall in the market to buy a small carved doll with which his daughter can play. She may dress the doll in new clothes she has made, feed it, and tuck it to bed under a tiny blanket in the corner of her room at night. The carved figure is called biiga ("child"), but it represents a mature women with developed breasts, an elaborate hairstyle, and the scarification patterns that mark passages in life. The doll represents the child, as she hopes one day to be. In the same way American girls play with dolls such as "Barbie" that represent an ideal or a stereotype to which the child hopes to conform.

Initiation into Adulthood Both young men and young women pass through initiation. For Mende women, this life passage prepares them for life as adult women in Mende society, teaching them the skills of child rearing, cooking, trading, sex education, and much more. It is especially important as a means of communicating knowledge of healing medicines and the spirit world from one generation of women to the next. At the end of the initiation period the young women are ritually bathed, their bodies are oiled with cosmetics, they are dressed in their best clothing and are presented to the community, ready to receive the gifts of potential suitors. Their reintegration into community life is accompanied by the appearance of masks such as this one, worn by the middle aged women who supervise the initiation, and which represent the ideals of feminine beauty among the Mende. The Mende are very conscious of personal appearance and value a glossy black skin, beautiful hairstyles, and a well-fed and prosperous physical condition.

Many traditional African societies are polygamous Marriage customs Many traditional African societies are polygamous Polygamy: having more than one spouse Men may only have multiple wives if he can support them Bridewealth- payment a man gives a woman’s family before marriage (land, cattle, cloth, tools) Dowry- payment a woman’s family before marriage (land, cattle, cloth, tools) Some tribes allow divorce, some do not

Marriage Marriage is a key moment that follows immediately after initiation among many peoples because both events serve to break the bonds of the individual with childhood and the unmarried state and to reintegrate the individual into the adult community. Among the Woyo people a young woman is given a set of carved pot lids by her mother when she marries and moves to her husband's home. Each of the lids is carved with images that illustrate proverbs about relations between husband and wife. If a husband abuses his wife in some way or if the wife is unhappy, she serves the husband's supper in a bowl that is covered with a lid decorated with the appropriate proverb. She can make her complaints public by using such a lid when her husband brings his friends home for dinner. The carved figure on this lid represents a cooking hearth with a pot on three stones. Divorce requires only the scattering of the stones, and it takes three to support the pot.

Bride Wealth It has been argued that such a system commodifies the bride and thus dehumanizes her, but others also make the argument that the system defines her value to the marriage in a concrete way and that it contributes to the stability of the marriage, because were the marriage to end in divorce the "bride-wealth" must be returned to the groom's family, and if it has already been invested in "bride-wealth" for the bride's own brothers this can be difficult indeed. The "bride-wealth" creates a bond between the families which forces them to invest in the success of the marriage. When there is trouble between husband and wife the relatives on both sides intervene to find a solution. The male-female couple from the Dogon people of Mali represents the ideal of pairing that is necessary for procreation. The linking of the male arm around the woman's neck emphasizes the bond that is created by marriage.

Becoming a Parent For an adult in Africa success in a traditional community is measured by his or her ability to find a partner, raise a family, and provide for the children that guarantee that the family will survive through the generations. Every adult is beset by concerns about the health of her children, his ability to secure and hold a means to earn a living, about his own health and that of his partner, and about the many uncertainties that we must confront throughout our lives. For a Baule man or woman to fail to marry, bear numerous children, and provide for his family is considered a serious problem. She may visit a diviner who may prescribe the carving of a figure that represents the spouse s/he had in the spirit world before birth. The spirit spouse takes possession of the figure, and care and attention as well as prayers and offerings are lavished on it to please it, so that it will permit its real-world spouse to fulfill his gender role. This figure pair represents the female larger than the male, and so it may have belonged to a Baule man.

On your Left Side: What is the following primary source saying about women in traditional African society?

“No marry’d Women, after they are brought to Bed, lie with their Husbands till three Years are expired, if the Child lives so long, at which Time they wean their Children, and go to Bed to their Husbands. They say that if a Woman lies with her Husband during the Time she has a Child sucking at her Breast, it spoils the Child’s Milk, and makes it liable to a great many Distempers. Nevertheless, I believe, not one Woman in twenty stays till they wean their Children before they lie with a Man; and indeed I have very often seen Women much censur’d, and judged to be false to their Husbands Bed, upon Account only of their suckling Child being ill.” --F. Moore (European trader) on the River Gambia in the 1730s, Travels into the Inland Parts of Africa (London, 1738), pp. 132-3.

Becoming an Elder The respect that is accorded both men and women who have attained positions of authority and honor is made visible among the Dan people (Liberia) by the large wooden ladles known as wunkirmian. The spoon bears an idealized portrait of the owner as a young woman, at the moment she began her role as mother and wife. The spoons are carved for women who are recognized by other women of a town as the most hospitable persons in a community. The spoons serve as symbol of that status and are used as a kind of dance wand when the honored women dances through the town accompanied by her own entourage of women.

Patterns of Government and Economic Structures

Patterns of Government Local leaders are chosen Problem arises Public Discussion Leaders listen to arguments Consensus is reached Gifts exchanged

Economic Organization Most villagers were subsistence farmers – They produced only enough food for their own needs with little or no surplus Fallow – allowing the land to regenerate important minerals needed to grow crops Land was community property http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/environment/field/graphics/22_returns.jpg

Subsistence Farming Natural Resources [water / land] [labor / knowledge] Human Resources Capital Resources [seed / tools] [family / friends] Distribution

Age Grade or Set

Age Set Group of boys or girls born in the same year Go through rituals together Transition into adulthood together i.e. Manhood initiation Circumcision ceremony for boys Scarification- ritual markings for tribe

The Age Grade System Definition Includes all boys or girls born in the same year This same age group works together for their entire lives Purpose To Learn about community and shared duties Together they take part in special age ceremonies Effect This group usually thinks similarly and works together quite well

What are some advantages of an age-set system? Each member can help others to pass through the various stages of life – they can also help each other obtain the specific individual benchmarks of each stage. Teach discipline, community service, and leadership all together

Problems of Tribalism Today

Problems of Tribalism Today 1. The tribe is more important than the nation. 2. Communication problems. 3. Inter-tribal warfare  civil wars. 4. Tribal favorites for government jobs: Nepotism Breaks down tribal traditions. Urbanization: Tribal intermingling on the job.

Tribalism problem Tribalism is often a stronger force than nationalism. Political parties based on tribes Problem of creating nationalism artificially. Globalization & Diversity: Rowntree, Lewis, Price, Wyckoff

African Culture: Art, Music, Dance, and Literature

Characteristics of AFRICAN ART What influenced it most? The environment Environment is reflected in art and religion It is a blend of NATURAL & HUMAN worlds: Nature: forces are wild and uncontrollable Human: is predictable and orderly guided by laws and customs Art, music, and dance very important to religion.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN ART Animals are very important Pieces are more ABSTRACT than realistic GEOMETRIC forms are used: eyes, nose, etc. Materials used: raffia, leaves, ivory, bark, gold, skins, wood Art was used for everyday life activities & religion EXAGGERATED body parts believed to have special powers: Eyes were the window to the soul Head was the seat of the soul Very large eyes, elongated or stretched heads!

African Culture Painting and Sculpture Music and Dance Architecture Rock paintings, wood carving, pottery, metalwork Music and Dance Often served religious purposes Wide variety of instruments Integration of voice and instrument Music produced for social rituals and educational purposes Architecture Pyramid Stone pillars Stone buildings Sometimes reflected Moorish styles Literature Written works did not exist in the early traditional period Professional storytellers, bards Importance of women in passing down oral traditions

Griots

Musician, Storyteller, Tribal Historian African Griots Musician, Storyteller, Tribal Historian

Griots, pronounced "greeohs", are storytellers of West Africa who use poetry and rhythm to teach villagers about their history. Their home is the territory of the Mandinke people in the country of Mali where their tradition is alive to this day. "Griot" is the French term for this class of musicians; the local term is jeli.

African Griots Every king wanted a Griot to recite the history of the kingdom, and to pass it down from father to son. History wasn't written down – everything was memorized and recited or sung The Griot memorized the clan's significant events such as births, deaths, marriages, hunts, and wars Ensured the continuity of heritage and culture.

Historical Role of the Griot tutored princes and gave council to kings. used their detailed knowledge of history to shed light on present-day dilemmas. would memorize significant events, like births, death, marriages, hunts, seasons and wars, ensuring that the collective heritage, culture and lineage of the clan continued.

Modern Role of the Griot Historian Genealogist Orator, artist, musician Counsellor Spiritual Leader

Griots Many early societies did not develop systems of writing Maintained sense of identity, continuity through oral traditions Included stories, songs, poems, proverbs Task of remembering, passing on entrusted to storytellers, griots Music and Dance In many societies, music, dance central to many celebrations, rituals Carving, wearing of elaborate masks part of these rituals as well Early Africans excelled in sculpture, bronze as well as terra cotta Traditional music performed with variety of wind, stringed instruments

West Africans have preserved their history through storytelling and the written accounts of visitors. Writing was not common in West Africa. People passed along information through oral histories, a spoken record of past events. West African storytellers were called griots. They helped keep the history of their ancestors alive for each new generation. In addition to stories, they recited proverbs. These were short sayings of wisdom or truth. They were used to teach lessons to the people. Some of the griot poems are epics that are collected in the Dausi and the Sundiata.

Griots Griots were West African storytellers They were highly respected Their job was to remember and pass on their people’s history They had to remember hundreds of names and events

Griots: Oral Storytelling Tradition passed down by storytelling Two forms of tales Human characters Animal characters Human tales dealt with creation, death, success & love Animal tales focused on small creatures vs. larger beasts

Proverbs Griots passed on more than stories, they also recited proverbs Proverbs are short sayings of wisdom or truth

West African Proverbs “It takes a village to raise a child.” “Talking doesn't fill the basket in the farm.” “Rats don't dance in the cat's doorway.”

The griot profession is inherited, passed on from one generation to the next. Griots are very different from the rest of society, almost a different ethnic group. They are both feared and respected by people in West Africa for their wisdom and talent with words.

Griots have been around for a millennium (one thousand years). Once, the male griots and female griottes were historians, genealogists (a person who traces or studies the descent of families), advisers to nobility, entertainers, messengers, praise singers — the list goes on. Today they are mainly entertainers.

In return for their services, griots receive gifts. There is no set fee. They never know what they will get. Sometimes a few coins, sometimes a blanket, sometimes much more.

Good griots must have remarkable memories and be ever ready to recite or sing long histories, genealogies, and praise songs. They must also be musically talented. To become a griot you must learn genealogies and histories, but not just the words, also the music.

Training for a griot begins within the family unit, with boys and girls learning from their griot parents, and then moves on to a formal griot school, and then to an apprenticeship with a master griot.

Both boys and girls can train to be griots, although griottes may have less freedom to travel and train because most are mothers. This is the way griots have always been trained.

                                                                               Griots hold the memory of West Africa. At the festival marking the installation of a regional chief in Faraba Banta in October 1991, griotte Adama Suso sings and Ma Lamini Jobareth plays the kora.

Griot singer Suso is playing the kora (note his name on the instrument).

Visitors’ Written Accounts of Africa

Visitors’ Written Accounts The people of West Africa left no written histories of their own. Much of what we know about early West Africa comes from the writings of travelers and scholars from Muslim lands such as Spain and Arabia. Ibn Battutah was the most famous Muslim visitor to write about West Africa. His accounts describe the political and cultural lives of West Africans in great detail.

Histories Much of what we know about West Africa comes from the writings of Muslim travelers and scholars One writer was Ibn Battutah- he described the political and cultural lives of West Africans Europeans learned about Africa from another traveler/writer named Leo Africanus Ibn Battutah’s travels

Epics Epics are long poems about kingdoms and heroes The Sundiata is an epic about Mali’s king Sundiata The epic tells how Sundiata’s family was killed by a conqueror when he was a boy, but Sundiata was spared because he looked weak. As a grown man, Sundiata overthrew the conquering king.

Art, Music, and Dance

Music and dancing were important. Through art, music, and dance, West Africans have expressed their creativity and kept alive their cultural traditions. Of all the visual forms, the sculpture of West Africa is probably the best known. The sculpture is mostly of people. It was made for religious rituals. Artists were deeply respected. Artists carved elaborate masks, which were used mostly for rituals as they danced around fires. They wove cloth such as kente, a handwoven, brightly colored fabric. Music and dancing were important. These activities helped people honor their history and were central to many celebrations.

Sculpture West Africa was famous for its statues made of wood, brass, clay, ivory, stone Sculptures of people were often used for ancestor worship African artists were deeply respected Pablo Picasso was influenced by African art Bronze sculpture, Mali, 1500s

Masks & Clothing Carved masks of animals used for dance rituals Africans wove special cloth called Kente that was used for special occasions Kente cloth is a hand-woven, brightly colored fabric Antelope mask, West Africa

Music & Dance Music and dance were forms of entertainment and helped people honor their history Dancing used for celebration at weddings, funerals

ACACIA WOOD Raffia From the Raphia Palm

Nok terracotta and ivory sculptures Nigeria, 1000 BC – 500 AD

Ashanti bird mask – kept in homes to ward off evil spirits

Modigliani’s style compared to African masks

On your Left Side: In a T-Chart, compare and contrast the role of the arts in traditional African society to that of American society.

Traditional African Religious Beliefs

African Religions “African Traditional Religions” = indigenous religions Islam = introduced to sub-Saharan Africa in 11th c. Christianity = introduced to West Africa in 15th c. Folk Christian Groups = indigenous Christian movements since early 1900’s

Africa Religions In Africa the three major religions are Traditional Beliefs, Christianity, and Islam. Traditional beliefs may include worship of: ancestors, spirits, gods, animals, land, inanimate objects, and/or natural phenomena.

Traditional Religions of Africa Not able to speak with authority about a single religion, theology, or ritual system. Few written records; oral tradition passed on by griots (singing, story tellers). The religious beliefs and customs of one group are not universally shared by others. Great variety of beliefs and practices in African tradition

Traditional Religion and Culture Many early Africans shared similar religious beliefs and shared common features in the arts as well. Many believed that unseen spirits of ancestors stayed near To honor spirits, families marked certain places as sacred places, put specially carved statues there Families gathered to share news, food with ancestors, hoping spirits would protect them Examples of Beliefs Many Africans also practiced form of religion called animism—belief that bodies of water, animals, trees, other natural objects have spirits Animism reflected Africans’ close ties to natural world Animism

Traditional African Religion ANIMISM 1. Belief in one remote Supreme Being. 2. A world of spirits (good & bad) in all things. 3. Ancestor veneration. 4. Belief in magic, charms, and fetishes. 5. Diviner  mediator between the tribe and God.

Religious Leaders in Traditional African Religions Not a major need for religious leaders; many activities can be performed by individuals – offerings of food and drinks to ancestors No complex theology or rituals like in Hinduism, Judaism, or Christianity No requirement of a priesthood and temples are very rare Some communities in West Africa do have temples and altars; people trained in African mythology, taboos, and rituals to prepare them

African Religions Supreme being had created everything Supreme being was a distant figure Many are monotheistic Oral traditions and myths Ancestors could help or harm them Every object on earth was filled with a living spirit (Animism)

Animism

Animism The term animism is derived from the Latin word anima meaning breath or soul. The belief of animism is probably one of man's oldest beliefs, with its origin most likely dating to the Paleolithic age. From its earliest beginnings it was a belief that a soul or spirit existed in every object, even if it was inanimate. In a future state this soul or spirit would exist as part of an immaterial soul. The spirit, therefore, was thought to be universal.

Animism          Animism is the belief that all living and nonliving things in nature have a spirit. Animism was the belief system of many early civilizations. Animism in early civilizations was often combined with ancestor worship.

Animism dates back to earliest humans and still exists. It can be practiced by anyone who believes in spirituality, but does not proscribe to an organized religion. Animist gods and beliefs often explain natural earthly things. The presence of holy men or women, visions, trances, dancing, sacred items and places are often characteristic of animist societies. Animism exists in traditional African, Asian, American and Aboriginal cultures.                                                                                                               

Animism Retained tribal ethnic religion of people around the world Today, adherents number at least 100 million Animists believe certain inanimate objects possess spirits or souls Spirits live in rocks, rivers, mountain peaks, and heavenly bodies Each tribe has its own characteristic form of animism A Shaman — tribal religious figure usually serves as the intermediary between people and the spirits

The Roots of Religion Animism (Shamanism) - the belief that all objects, animals, and beings are “animated” or possess a spirit and a conscious life. Also called shamanism because of the prominence of a Shaman. Such beliefs are common among hunter-gatherers. 10% of Africans follow such traditional ethnic religions. These beliefs are losing ground to Christianity and Islam throughout Africa. Nigerian Shaman

Animism To some animists, objects do not actually possess spirits, but are valued because they have a potency to serve as a link between people and the omnipresent god Animism can be a very complex belief system Sub-Saharan Africa is the greatest surviving stronghold of animism Along the north edge Islam is rapidly winning converts Christian missionaries are very active throughout the area

High God and Lesser Spirits

The High God Belief in a Supreme High God who created the world and then withdrew from active participation in it is common in polytheistic religions around the world Belief shared by many African people Most African religions are polytheistic in day-to-day practice Beyond all minor gods, goddesses, spirits and ancestors, exists one High God, who created and in some sense still governs the universe.

High God Continued Most believe that this God is too distant and has limited contact with daily operation of human life Can be appealed to in times of great crisis Yoruba tribe of West Africa – Olorun (High God) – He assigned creation to his eldest son Obatala, who failed to complete the task. Olorun passed it on to Odudua, but he failed too. Olorun oversaw creation himself by assigning smaller tasks to various orisha, lesser deities. Olorun then retired to the heavens and has little contact with people.

Nuer Tribe of Sudan: Exception with the High God Kwoth Nhial (High God) continues to play an active role in the lives of humans He rewards the just, punishes the wicked, and blesses those who uphold the moral values of the Nuer people He loves and cares for His creation and is asked for blessing and assistance

High God Most Africans believe the High God is too powerful to be appealed to for daily problems. He really isn’t interested. Lesser deities or orishas control day-to-day occurrences Even Nuer have a host of lesser deities

The Lesser Spirits abilities of supreme being (creation), aspects of nature (water), historical humans (leaders), human activities (agriculture) celebrate through myth, song, prayer, sacrifice, possession, gendered, character, food, color, altars, images, priests, rituals, daily relationships

The Lesser Spirits Earth, water, and sky contain spiritual life similar to human kind Mountains, forest, rivers and streams, many plants and animals Storms, lightening, thunder Spirits can be beneficial or harmful They are influenced by prayer, flattery, and sacrifice. They have a direct influence on human life so Africans seek to understand them and seek their favor

World of the Spirits Dogon “Spirit House”

Lesser Spirits Continued They can be male or female. Earth is regarded as a mother goddess. Ex. Ashanti prayer for the Earth Mother: “Earth, while I am yet alive, It is upon you that I put my trust Earth who receives my body, We are addressing you, And you will understand.”

In Ghana there is a water spirit called Mami Water The fishermen consider her so sacred they do not talk about her openly.

People believed they had to maintain a favorable (good) relationship with the spirits or else suffer their wrath (anger).

Water: A Sacred Element Water sacred to many cultures. When life depends on water in the form of rainfall, rivers, and streams, water takes on a life of its own. Africans use water for rituals such as the washing of the newborn and the dead. It must come from a source of sacred, living water. It must not be heated or boiled, or treated with chemicals as that would kill the spirit in it.

Ancestor Worship

Ancestor Worship Most commonly recognized spiritual forces in Africa Continue to live on in the spirit world and unlike the High God take an active interest in the well-being of those who live in the world. Ancestors are consulted before the birth of a child, beginning of an agricultural season, prior to battle, or political conflicts. In some tribes, no one may eat the first fruit of the harvest until it has been offered to the ancestors.

Ancestor Worship Continued While in China and Japan ancestors are loved and respected, in Africa they are feared. They can be capricious (do whatever they want, fickle) and unpredictable. Ancestors can do whatever they want. Despite many offerings, they can turn on you or the community. May cause sickness, death, childlessness (a major curse) Ancestors more than the gods are the enforcers of the moral codes of the tribe.

Ancestor Worship Continued Gifts and sacrifices offered to them Belief that ancestors own the land and its products Portion of harvest must be offered to them When animals are born, some must be slaughtered and offered to ancestors to ensure their blessings. Modern Africans living in cities, return to their native villages to offer sacrifices

Diviners and Healers

Diviners and Healers Rooted in Tradition Their purpose was to explain the cause of misfortune Experts in herbal medicine Today, doctors study the roots and herbs used in traditional African healing http://www.pharma.unibas.ch/bio/img/Humor_now_and_then/Humor_Herbal_Medicine_1.jpg

Diviners: Communication with Ancestors They can speak to you in dreams They can send signs to you in nature that can be interpreted with the help of diviners, spiritual specialists Signs are sometimes interpreted by looking at the organs of sacrificed animals Diviners can also contact ancestors for help with knowing the future.

Diviners Causes: natural & supernatural; human-human, human-divine, & human-natural relationships are messed up Divination: ritual process, humans obtain inaccessible, obscure info. about a client’s place in religious cosmos Priests handle neutral objects Priests interpret meaning of results (i.e. Yoruba Ifa diviners & Orunmila & Odu, 16 palm nuts, x8 times, 256 chapters)

African Diviner (Shaman)

Tallensi Tribe: Example of Pleasing Ancestors Tallensi man named Pu-eng-yii left his family and settled with a rival group to earn more money. Auto accident, serious leg injury Diviner told him that ancestors were angry; told him that his ancestors had intended to kill him but failed to follow through on the plan. Solution: He had to make restitution (monetary compensation) for leaving his family, severe ties with newly adopted family, and return home.

Sacrifices

Sacrifices to Please Spirits and Ancestors Pouring our a bit of their drinks or tossing away bits of their food (similar to when you drop a hot dog at a BBQ – an offering to the backyard gods). Simple act that pleases spirits and ancestors Sacrifice of animals for more serious occasions – dogs, birds, sheep, goats and cattle

Animal Sacrifice and Other Sacrifice to Appease Gods Blood poured out on ground or altar Before a battle or election campaign or when there’s a serious drought or in times of illness Prior to engaging in a dangerous hunt Ogun – Yoruba god of iron. In modern day, he is a god of machinery. People who drive automobiles in dangerous streets decorate their cars with his symbols

Partaking in the Sacrifice: Communion with Spirits After animal is sacrificed, a portion is cut and roasted or boiled and offered to the deity. A portion is consumed by those in the sacrifice. This unites them with the spirits. A long tradition with world religions to build spiritual bond Consider Christianity and Holy Communion

Rituals and Rites of Passage

Ritual Organized group activity Relationships among humans, super-humans & nature give meaning to ritual Rites of passage: define social, religious, physical identity (birth, puberty, marriage, death)

Rituals and Rites of Passage Important parts of life marked with rituals Rites of passage regulated by religious functionaries Birth of child – time for great rejoicing; great blessing from the world of the spirits Twins – not a blessing, dangerous and evil. Sometimes, regarded that women had two men and each were the fathers Occasionally, one or both are killed

Rituals and Rites of Passage continued In many African societies, including the Ashanti, children are not named for the first week of life. Because of high infant mortality, African tribes believe that it may be a trickster god who wants to trick people into loving it only to leave them After they make it through a week, then much love is lavished on the child

Rituals and Rites of Passage After naming the child, there is a ceremony of gently throwing the child in the air and introducing it to the moon, which is deity (The Gu of the Benin) The Basuto of South Africa say: “There is your father’s sister.” Circumcision is sometimes done after child birth Most of the time, it is reserved for puberty

Circumcision Circumcision is a religious requirement for Jews and Muslims and is significant to many Christians For Africans, circumcision is reserved for when young men reach puberty Severity can vary from a minor cuts that have no major threat to genital mutilation which can be life threatening Usually no anesthetic

Circumcision The man who performs the ceremony may wear a mask representing the ancestors. Represents passage into adulthood Initiate is expected not to flinch or cry out in pain Female circumcision is practiced in some African societies although there is growing opposition around the world As with male circumcision, no major medical reason for doing it but supposed to control their erotic desire

Rituals and Rites of Passage Adulthood – responsibilities and privileges Leaving the family home Marriage is very important; so is bearing children; a childless couple will go to great lengths to discover why they are childless with the help of a diviner Death – rituals to make the deceased comfortable; fear that their ghosts will return to haunt the living; widows fear that husbands will return to cause their wombs to die

Marriage Rituals Virginity is highly prized especially among young women Some tribes sew part of the female genitalia when the girls are small for the future husband Frequently, husband may not have sexual relations with wife while she is pregnant and nursing, which altogether may be two years. Polygamy is practiced by elites of many traditional African tribes. Several wives and separate houses

Rituals for the Dead Africa’s warm climate ---dead buried quickly Sometimes embalming and mummification; occasionally offered to hyenas Burial with objects that will make their time in spirit world more enjoyable In some African societies, illness, misfortune, death don’t just happen. Often the result of witchcraft or foul play In past, dead were allowed to identify their killers. If their hands, dropped as they passed someone in the community or if they fell near someone as they were being carried, that person would have to defend his/her innocence.

Death and World of Spirits Most tribes do not have a system of eschatology or concepts of judgment and retribution after death. Dead simply move into the world of the spirits and continue to be interested in the world of the living. LoDagaa people of Ghana – exception Crossing a river with a ferryman (similar to Greek idea of River Styx and Hades), easy if you were good, difficult and up to three years if you were bad, making up for your evil

Islam and Christianity in Africa

Other Religions in Africa ISLAM  25% * Nigeria  largest sub-Saharan Muslim countries. CHRISTIANITY  20%

Religion The Introduction and Spread of Christianity Indigenous religions tend to be animistic The Introduction and Spread of Christianity Entered northeast Africa around 300 A.D. Coptic Christians - Ethiopia & Eritrea; other Christians in Sudan Dutch brought Calvinism to South Africa in 1600s The Introduction and Spread of Islam Introduced about 1,000 years ago Today, orthodox Islam prevails in most of the Sahel Interaction Between Religious Traditions Religious conflict most acute in northeastern Africa Sudan: conflict between Muslims in north and Non-Muslims in the south Globalization & Diversity: Rowntree, Lewis, Price, Wyckoff

Christianity in Africa

The route of African Christianity Egypt and Libya in the beginning Apollos of Alexandria Others from Cartage Eunuch of Ethiopia, Meroitic Official, a.k.a. Kandaka, a Regent to the throne of Candace, the Queen of Ethiopia Preservation of Scriptures in Africa, the Sinaiticus Texts particularly Bishops such as Clement and Cyril, men of Alexandria in Egypt. The Nubians of Sudan and the Coptic of Ethiopians are part of Africa Christians heritage. 4

Christianity 2 billion adherents make it most practiced in the world. Originated in Bethlehem (8-4 BC) and Jerusalem (AD 30) with Jesus Christ. Spread by missionaries and the Roman Empire (Constantine A.D. 313). It is the most practiced religion in Africa today.

Islam in Africa

The Coming of Islam North Africa Arab forces seized the Nile delta of Egypt in 641 New capital at Cairo Arabs welcome due to high taxes and periodic persecution of Coptic Christians by Byzantines Arabs seize Carthage in 690, called Al Maghrib Berbers resisted for many years The Kingdom of Ethiopia: A Christian Island in a Muslim Sea Axum began to decline Shift in trade routes and overexploited agriculture Muslim trading states on the African coast of the Red Sea transforming Axum into an isolated agricultural society Source of ivory, resins, and slaves Attacked by Muslim state of Adal in early 14th century Became a Christian state in mid-twelfth century

Islam in West Africa Along with adopting new practices and ethical values, West Africans kept some of their old religious practices. Muslim leaders allowed them to continue religious traditions as long as they did not contradict (conflict with) the Five Pillars Faith. W. Africans continued to show respect for the spirits of dead ancestors. They kept their belief in spirits who could help those or made sacrifices to them. They used amulets, or charms, that they believed helped people or protected them from harm.

The Spread of Islam in West Africa Traders Bring Islam to Ghana Between 639 and 708 C.E., Arab Muslims conquered North Africa They wanted to bring W. Africa into the Islamic world. Initially the king of Ghana did not convert, nor did the majority of the people. But the king did allow Muslims to build settlements within his empire theradiantlight.blogspot.com

Islam in Mali The tolerance shown by Muslims toward traditional religious practices helped Islam to spread. Early leaders of Mali accepted Islam, but they didn’t follow all of its teachings. In 1312, a new leader, Mansa Musa, took over in Mali. He became the first West African ruler to practice Islam devoutly. digitalhistory.uh.edu

Islam in Mali Under the rule of Mansa Musa, Mali became a major crossroad of the Islamic world. Musa made a hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca His caravan was described as “a lavish display of power, wealth, and unprecedented by its size and pageantry.” Included in his caravan was: 500 slaves, each carrying a 6 lb. staff of gold Caravan of 200 camels carrying 30,000 lbs. of gold Food, clothing, and supplies Because of this impressive display, Mali gained acceptance as an important empire

Islam in Songhai In the 1460s Sunni Ali became the new ruler of Songhai. He built a powerful army that enabled Songhai to break away from Mali and eventually conquer it. Early Songhai rulers didn’t seriously practice Islam Under the leadership of Askia Mohammed Toure, a devout Muslim, rigid controls were set to ensure Islam was being practiced properly. http://www.civilizacoesafricanas.blogspot.com

Changes in Africa due to Islam

Change #1: Succession An important change in government was in how people chose their next leader, or “line of succession” Traditionally succession to the throne had been matrilineal – the right to rule was traced through the woman’s side of the family After the arrival of Islam, succession became patrilineal – the right to rule went from father to son. http://www.zacstravaganza.blogspot.com

Change #2: Structure of Gov’t Muslims believed in a highly centralized government, which was different than traditional African society After conversion to Islam, West African kings sought more control of local rulers Rulers adopted titles used in Muslim lands, such as “emir” and “sultan” http://etudesafricaines.revues.org/docannexe/image/135/img-2-small480.png

Change #3: Adoption of Shari’ah Law Customary laws of Africa usually: were enforced by chiefs or kings didn’t give physical punishments Weren’t written down Guilty person paid injured party with gifts or services Family or clan of guilty person could also be punished http://www.onlinelegaltips.com/images/Judiciary-System-In-Africa.jpg

Shari’ah Law: Laws were written Muslims believed that shari’ah came from God Administered by judges called qadis Cases were heard in a court Witnesses called Ruled on basis of the law and the evidence presented http://shariahcouncil.org/

Change # 4: Emphasis on Education Muslims highly value learning & encouraged people to become educated. Timbuktu Became famous for its community of Islamic Scholars Contained several universities Schools were set up to educate children in the Qur’an Schools run by an imam (scholar) Basic subjects included studying the Qur’an, Islamic studies, law, and literature

Change #5: Arabic: A New Language In West Africa, Arabic became the language of religion, learning, commerce (business), and government. Arabic became the language of TRADE and GOVERNMENT West Africans continued to use their native languages in everyday speech. Scholars used Arabic to begin to write about the history and culture of West Africa. Arabic allowed rulers to keep records and to write to rulers in other countries. Using the common Arabic language, West African traders who spoke different languages to communicate more easily.

What was written about? They recorded the history of the Songhai. Described how people used animals, plants, and minerals to cure diseases. Discussed ethical behavior for business and government. Told how to use the stars to determine the seasons. They recorded the history of the Songhai. They wrote about Islamic Law

Change #6: Architecture Mosques in West Africa Traditionally, West Africans built small shrines to the forces of nature. As they converted to Islam, they began to build mosques (Muslim house of worship). The mosques that were built blended Islamic architectural styles with their own traditional religious art. For example, the minaret (tower) of one mosque was designed to look like the symbol of a Songhai ancestor. Mosques in West Africa used the materials that were available in the local area.

Islamic Invasions

Change# 7: Decorative Arts West Africans adopted the use of calligraphy and geometric patterns in their decorative arts. Arabic calligraphy was used to decorate costumes, fans, and even weapons. West Africans adopted the dress of Arabic robes… using decorative textiles and clothing and everyday objects like stools, ceramic containers. goafrica.about.com

Extent of Islam (Fig. 6.25) Globalization & Diversity: Rowntree, Lewis, Price, Wyckoff