Police Administration: Structures, Processes, and Behavior (Eighth Edition) Charles R. Swanson, Leonard Territo, and Robert W. Taylor Policing Today Chapter 2

Focus of Community Policing The COP movement focused on programs that fostered five elements: A commitment to crime prevention Public scrutiny of the police Accountability of police actions to the public Customized police service Community organization

Problems with Traditional Policing Response model Research findings: Randomized motor patrol Increasing the number of police Police were not effective at decreasing crime rates in the 1960s and 1970s. Community policing advocates argue that traditional policing is a system of response – police respond to calls for services after the activity occurs. Randomized motor patrol neither lowers crime nor increases the chances of catching suspects. Increasing the number of police has limited impact on the crime rate because improving response time on calls for services has little relevance to preventing the original incident.

Complementary Elements of Community Policing COP is a proactive approach to crime control with three complementary elements: Community partnerships Problem solving using the SARA model Organizational transformation

Problem Oriented Policing and the SARA Model Herman Goldstein Problem: a cluster of similar, related, or recurring incidents rather than a single incident SARA Scanning Analysis Response Assessment Problem-oriented policing Originally branded by Herman Goldstein What are some examples of community problems? Addressing recurring social problems within a community through an innovative, four-step model called SARA Scanning: Officers are encouraged to group individual, related incidents that come to their attention as “problems” and define these problems in more precise and useful terms Rather than rely on broad, law-related concepts (robbery, burglary, auto theft, etc.) Analysis: Officers working on a well-defined problem collect information from a variety of public and private sources Not just police data! Response: Use the knowledge gained in the analysis stage to develop and implement solutions Officers seek the assistance of citizens, businesses, other police units, other public and private organizations, and anyone else who can help develop a program of action Solutions may go well beyond traditional police responses to include other community agencies and/or municipal organizations Assessment: Officers evaluate the impact and the effectiveness of their responses

Key Components of Community Policing

Elements of CompStat Make the police be more efficient and effective Four core principles: Accurate and timely intelligence and statistical crime information based on geographical settings and/or areas Rapid deployment of resources Effective tactics and strategies of enforcement that focus on visible street crimes or “quality-of-life” crimes Relentless follow-up and assessment CompStat derived from “comp,” stemming from the word “computer,” and “stat,” which originates from statistics. Originally developed in New York City by then-Commissioner William Bratton in the mid-1990s. Looks at individual needs of the community and then designs proactive strategies to stop or prevent crime CompStat is a collection of modern management practices, military-like deployment efforts, and strong enforcement strategies all based on the availability of accurate and timely statistical crime data. Four core principles highlight a police department’s model of CompStat: (see above)

Chicago Alternative Policing Strategy Crime control and prevention Neighborhood orientation Increased geographic responsibility Structures response to calls for police service Proactive, problem-solving approach Combined community and city resources for crime prevention and control Emphasis on crime and problem analysis through the CompStat process Training Communication and marketing Evaluation, strategic planning, and organizational change CAPS was designed to move the department from a traditional, reactive, incident-driven agency to a more proactive and community-oriented department CAPS has a number of key features aimed at improving and expanding the overall quality of police services in the city of Chicago, as well as reducing crime. (See slide above)

CAPS “Identify and solve problems of crime and disorder and to improve the quality of life in all of Chicago’s neighborhoods.” Five prototype districts Changes to structure, roe, and culture of policing

Evidence-Based Policing EBP utilizes the scientific method to identify, implement, evaluate, and modify the methods that are most effective in reducing crime

Hot-Spots Policing Crime is concentrated in isolated areas Forces the police to identify specific areas with undue concentrations of crime and then direct their resources at those places. Like EBP, reflects the direct application of empirical data Crime is NOT randomly dispersed, but rather is concentrated in isolated areas Only a few locations were responsible for a majority of police calls for service and reported crime

Directed and Saturated Patrols Directed Patrol: “directing” patrol officers to specific locations during their patrol shift Saturated Patrol: Concentrates additional officers on specific locations at specific times Tactics commonly used in policing Often used in conjunction with hot-spots policing Involve the assignment of officers to problematic areas for proactive enforcement at high-risk times It is unknown if crime is actually reduced or simply displaced.

Intelligence-Led Policing Utilizes criminal intelligence analysis as a means to accomplish crime prevention and reduction through best practices and partnerships with other entities Not a tactic or a crime-reduction strategy – it is a business model for policing Has become popular in recent years Widespread recognition of the ineffectiveness of the standard policing model Difficulty in implementing POP Departments faced with financial constraints More sophisticated technologies in information retrieval and analysis of police information have generated interest in systematic approaches to crime Limitations: Data entry problems Lack of training in advanced analytic techniques within the police

Predictive Policing Uses information and analytical tools to achieve the goal of crime prevention while requiring fewer resources Improves upon ILP and reflects on the principles of POP, COP, and EBP Similar to ILP, predictive policing is a proactive approach to crime and disorder Uses information and analytical tools to achieve the goal of crime prevention while requiring fewer resources Uses advanced analytics that evaluate and examine data and information through advanced statistics and artificial intelligence Data mining, crime mapping, geospatial prediction

Crime Analysis Purpose: Organize massive quantities of raw information and forecast specific, future events from the statistical manipulation of these data Identifying patterns and relationships between crime data and other relevant data sources to prioritize and target police activity Provides a thorough and systematic analysis of data on which to make rational decisions regarding past, present, and future actions

Common Crime Analysis Techniques Tactical crime analysis Strategic crime analysis Link analysis Telephone toll analysis Visual investigative analysis Case analysis and management system Intelligence analysis Describe each type of crime analysis technique and discuss how it may be used in a realistic scenario.

Geographic Information Systems Integration of automated database operations and high-level mapping Analyze, manipulate, and manage spatial data Statistical spatial analysis Spatial modeling With the advent of sophisticated computerized mapping, researchers have found a widespread adoption of GIS tools across police departments. Has become an influential mechanism in hot-spots policing as well as Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, situational policing, directed patrols, and crime analysis Police agencies can use GIS for a variety of things: Dispatching police units by providing directions to locations Locations of nearby fire and waste hazards, fire hydrants, water lines, etc. Two types of crime mapping: Statistical spatial analysis: Focuses on the spatial relationship between crime points in a particular area Spatial modeling: Technology and application of data

The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Policing Integration of many technologies and disciplines to create systems that can: Think See Hear Touch Feel Shift from mere data processing to an intelligent processing of knowledge AI: science and technology based on computer science, biology, psychology, linguistics, mathematics, engineering Police managers find “cognitive science applications” (in figure above) most promising Discuss specific examples of AI that police departments use. How are they beneficial to both police officers and police administrators?

The Impact of Information Technologies on Policing Police administrators must ensure that technology development and design support the emerging strategies in policing Police executives must manage technologies rather than allow themselves to be managed by it Individual police officers must understand their role in the community as aided by, but not controlled by, information technologies Information technologies have become central to the support of modern policing strategies. Useful in data analysis, as well as storing and maintaining older data. What is important to note, though, is that information technologies are not limited to the roles of crime analysts. The entire organization must have access to such technology, such as field inquiries, mapping of specific neighborhoods, and managerial performance measures. Information technologies also play an integral role in administrative decision making. Although there are countless benefits of information technologies for the police, officers and administrators in departments must be equipped with information and training. It is the role of the police administrator to ensure that information technology development and design support the emerging strategies in policing. Police officers and executives must manage technology rather than be managed by it. Individual officers must understand their role in the community as aided by, but not controlled by, information technologies.