1. The Evolution of Police Administration
Structures, Processes, and Behavior
(Eighth Edition)
Charles R. Swanson, Leonard Territo,
and Robert W. Taylor
The Evolution of Police Administration
Chapter 1

2. English Influence on Early American Policing
Improved agricultural methods
Provided significant surplus crops to support people living in cities
People were drawn to cities by the industrial revolution ( )
Shifted production from manual labor to machine-made
1829: Parliament passed the Metropolitan Police Act
LECTURE NOTES
The rise of unified, full-time police departments in America was influenced by events in England.
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, England’s economy made two key shifts (see slide above)
As the populations of England's cities grew, so did their problems (slums, crime, appalling working conditions)
Social unrest escalated
Old ways of dealing with crime and unrest were inadequate
Metropolitan Police Act created a full-time police agency for London
Strongly supported by Sir Robert Peel

3. Urbanization of American Policing
1890 frontier closing
By the Census of 1920, 51% of Americans lived in cities
Most full-time municipal officers now work in large agencies
However, more than half of all municipal police departments (55%) have 10 or fewer full-time officers
The proliferation of agencies
In 1890, the federal government announced the frontier was closed
Onset of the swift transition from mural, agrarian society to an urbanized one in only 30 years
Proliferation of agencies: there is a vast difference in capabilities among local law enforcement agencies

4. Politics and Police Administration in the 19th Century
No way to keep politics out of police departments because:
Police departments must be responsive to democratic control
Supervision by elected as opposed to appointed officials
Public policy is expressed in the laws, regulations, operating procedures, decisions, and actions taken or not taken by a governmental agency
Politics flourish in even the smallest agencies
Politics: the process of acquiring and maintaining control over a government
Isn’t inherently bad or good
Depends on how power is used

5. Political Machines and Administration
Patronage
Pendleton Act
Political Machines/Machine Politics: a tightly controlled political party headed by a boss of small autocratic group whose purpose was to repeatedly win elections for personal gain, often through graft and corruption
Patronage/Spoils System: in the worst sense, rewarding voters for their loyalty rather than their ability; useful in appointing qualified supporters who can help politicians implement their policies
Pendleton Act: established the U.S. Civil Service commission and mandated that some federal employees pass a competitive examination and be appointed on the basis of merit

6. The Reformation Period (1900-1926)
Two immediate needs:
Arouse the public from its apathy
Create a conceptual cornerstone or model for improvement
Separate politics and patronage in the worse sense from the administration of governmental agencies
As policing entered the 20th century, cities were staggering under the burdens of machine politics, rampant patronage, government inefficiency, poverty, corruption, crime, slums, inadequate health care, riots, and the exploitation of women and children by industries.
State and federal governments were similarly dysfunctional and scandalized
Conditions were so intolerable that they finally became the stimulus for change
Change came in the form of the Reformation Period (see slide above)
The conceptual cornerstone (#2 in slide above) was provided for by Woodrow Wilson before he was president.

7. Police Professionalization
Public sentiments or declarations of faith
1541
Profession come from the Latin pro (forth) and fateri (confess) – to announce a belief
At its earliest use, the word referred to public statements or declarations of faith.
By 1541, profession meant a learned occupation
25 years later, its meaning was reduced to how a person habitually earned a living
1675: Professing to be duly qualified

8. Police Professionalization
There are three different views about the criteria making up a profession (see slide above)
The serious work on professions has centered on specifying what criteria must be met to constitute a profession.

9. August Vollmer The Father of Modern Policing
Chief “Gus” Vollmer
Berkeley Police Department became the model for professional policing
Mobilization of officers
Police signal system to dispatch calls
Modern records system
Crime analysis
Scientific crime laboratory
Lie detection machine
The genesis of American professional policing was the work of Gus Vollmer in Berkeley, CA, during

10. Improving the Caliber of Police Personnel
Police Training
College Classes
Intelligence & Psych testing
Recruit College Students
Vollmer was best known for his tireless efforts to improve the caliber of police personnel.
Established police training (1908)
Encouraged officers to attend college classes
Introduced intelligence and psychological testing for officers
Began recruiting college students

11. The Military Model
Resulted in more staff positions to do specialized work
Emphasized line inspection of officers and staff inspection of functions
Written policies and procedures
Enhanced training
Increased accountability
Adoption of the bureaucratic form of organization
Some reformers sought to enhance professionalization by using a new model that presumably would lead to more efficient operations.
They concluded the country was besieged by crime and that police, as the front line of defense against it, were analogous to the military.
The implementation of the military model (see slide above) required expanded authority for chiefs.
Some jurisdictions hired military officers to head their agencies.

12. Prohibition to 1930s National Prohibition Act /Volstead Act
Resulted in large, illicit market for alcohol
Speakeasies
Bootleggers
Law of unintended consequences!
Did more to damage the image and reputation of policing than any other single event
Prohibition was ratified as the 18th Amendment to the Constitution in 1919.
The Volstead Act was the legal means for enforcing the new amendment.
The making, manufacturing, selling, bartering, transporting, importing, exporting, and delivery of alcohol were made illegal.
To protect their operations, gangsters bribed police, judges, and other public officials to “look the other way.”

13. Early Professionalism in the 1930s
Police began to move away from its tarnished image
National Commission on Law Observance and Law Enforcement (1929)/Wickersham Commission
Civil service protection
Enhanced training and education
Formation of the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP)
However difficult the 1930s (i.e. the Depression), law enforcement gained some momentum.
Moved away from its tarnished image and toward increased legitimacy and authority in society
President Hoover appointed the National Commission on Observance and Law Enforcement/Wickersham Commission: the first comprehensive study of crime and policing in America’s history
Offered recommendations
Among its recommendations was support for the police having civil service protection and enhanced training and education.
Major academic programs sprang up
The importance of separating police and politics gained additional impetus as law enforcement associations were created.
1934: IACP

14. The KKK, Black Codes, and Law Enforcement
The Ku Klux Klan
Formed in 1930s by Confederate Army veterans who were bored
Slave patrols
Black Codes
Jim Crow laws
Forces Act (1870)
KKK took over some of the duties that slave patrols held until the end of the Civil War.
Southern states and local legislatures quickly adopted Black Codes in reaction to losing the Civil War.
Jim Crow laws added more restrictions.
Enforcement of Black Codes and Jim Crow laws caused police to drop even lower in the estimation of African Americans.
The Federal Forces Act was passed in response to the actions of the KKK. This resulted, for the most part, in the disintegration of the Klan.

15. Policing in WWII and the 1950s
The 1940s and 1950s were dominated by WWII and the Korean War
The mobilization of all able-bodied men created opportunities for women in policing and the defense industry
Police duties during WWII expanded to civil defense tasks
Preference given to military veterans in hiring
Although small numbers of women had been hired as police officers since 1920, the war opened the door to more of them, although they were often assigned to specialty duties such as dealing with juvenile delinquents and shoplifting.
Police duties during WWII expanded to civil defense tasks in some jurisdictions as they were tasked with such responsibilities as directing the work of air wardens.
When the war ended, many veterans made a smooth transition from the military to police departments because of the preference given to military veterans in hiring and their familiarity with wearing a uniform and a rank hierarchy with authority and responsibility.

16. The Professional Model in the 1950s
O.W. Wilson’s Police Administration (1950)
Validated the military model
Respond to incidents
Quickly became the “Bible” for law enforcement executives
Interest in the police waned during the 1950s, as new issues came to the fore.
O.W. Wilson’s Police Administration essentially validated the military model, whose core operational philosophy was respond to incident.
Crime was thought to be prevented and apprehensions made by random, aggressive patrol in all areas of the city at all times.
Police Administration quickly became the “Bible” for law enforcement executives.
Organize and staff the units in their agency
Achieve the most efficient operations

17. Turbulent 1960s and the Police
Riots
High rates of minority unemployment
Poor housing
White store owners took money from the minority communities but showed no reciprocity
Segregated, unequal society
Police officers were viewed as hostile and repressive
Hippies
Drugs
War protests
Civil rights
Women's rights
Supreme Court decisions
Assassinations
Domestically, the 1960s was a staggering decade for society: smoldering racial, social, and economic tensions erupted.

18. Turbulent 1960s and the Police
The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (1967)
The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (1968)
The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society
First national study of police since the Wickersham report
Recommended that police officers have college degrees
The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (The Kerner Commission)
Confusing demands are being placed on law enforcement (maintain order AND demand tougher enforcement)

19. Education and Policing
Police professionalism took on new urgency following the events in the 1960s
“Professional” became synonymous with “education”
Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP)
A new world was unfolding that police did not understand and in which they felt isolated and unsupported.
Police professionalism took on new urgency
In policing, “professional” slowly became synonymous with “education”
Education was seen as a means of improving community relations
Beginning in 1968, the Federal Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP) provided up to $2,400 a year to help defray college education costs for criminal justice majors

20. The Police Research Trilogy
During the 1970s, there was a torrent of research.
An early trilogy of major experiments rocked policing:
Kansas City Preventive Patrol Study
Rand Criminal Investigation Study
Team Policing Experiment
Challenge of Crime in a Free Society found “There is no subject connected with crime or criminal justice into which further research is unnecessary.”
During the 1970s, with grants from LEAA, there was a torrent of research.
Kansas City Preventive Patrol Study:
Examined three types of patrol services to see what difference each made
Found no significant differences in reported crime, arrests, traffic accidents, fear of crime, or security measures by citizens
Rand Criminal Investigation Study
Sought to determine what factors contribute to the success of criminal investigations, and just what it is that detectives do
Concluded that preliminary investigations conducted by patrol officers provided the information that led to the solution of most crimes
Team Policing Experiment
A bold reform effort to reshape how police resources were used and to reduce the amount of specialization by using patrol officers in a variety of roles
Team policing eventually vanished due to problems of implementation and the opposition of mid-level police managers
Experiment increased the appreciation of the capabilities of patrol officers and helped set the stage for community policing

21. Police Support Organizations Formed in the 1960s and 1970s
National Association of Women Law Enforcement Executives
National Criminal Justice Reference Service
Hispanic American Police Command Officers Association
Police Executive Research Forum
National Organization of Black Law Enforcement Executives
Commission on Accreditation of Law Enforcement Agencies
National Association of Asian American Law Enforcement Commanders
Around 1970, there was a movement toward new organizations.

22. Beyond the 1970s: Policing Strategies
Community Oriented Policing
Zero Tolerance Policing
CompStat
Evidence-Based Policing
Innovation in policing strategies occurred at a rapid pace beginning in the 1980s.
Technological advances in policing have also played a large role in the development of new strategies in policing.
COP: Early 1980s policing philosophy that essentially provided custom-tailored police services to neighborhoods and business districts
ZTP: Based on the premise that when small infractions of the law are ignored it creates a climate conducive to more serious crimes being committed. ZTP required non-discretionary enforcement for all crimes.
CompStat: A strategic control and crime-fighting methodology, widely referred to as computer statistics; originated in the NYPD in 1994
EBP: Theory of policing that argues that police practices should be based on the best evidence available