Course Code: 802311 Course Name: Electronic Devices By Prof. Iqbal Ahmad Khan Department of Electrical Engineering Faculty of Engineering & Islamic Architecture Umm Al Qura University, Makka Al Mukarrama Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Course Number:  802311              Units: (Lec., Lab., Tot.):  (3, 1 , 4) Course Name:  ELECTRONIC DEVICES Prerequisite: 802301 & 403102    Contact Hours: 6 Course Topics: Semiconductor Theory PN Junction Diode Other Diodes and Devices Transistors DC and AC Analysis of Transistors Field-Effect Transistors Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Text Book: Thomas l. Floyd, “ELECTRONIC DEVICES”, Nineth Edition, Pearson Education International, 2012. References :  R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”, 10th Edition, Pearson Education International, 2010. A. S. Sedra and K. C. Smith, “Microelectronics Circuits”, Oxford University Press, 5th Edition, 2008. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Classification of Materials Electrically Materials can be classified into three categories: 1. Insulators, 2. Conductors, 3. Semiconductors. 1. Insulators: The materials in which all electrons are tightly bounded to atoms are Insulators. Examples: Glass, Ceramics, Plastic, Rubber. 2. Conductors: The materials in which the outermost atomic electrons are free to move around are Conductors. Conductors typically have ~1 “free electron” per atom. Examples: Gold, Silver, Copper, Aluminum. 3. Semiconductors. The materials in which electrons are not tightly bound and can be easily “promoted” to a free state are Semiconductors. Examples: Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators Gold Silicon Glass Silver Germanium Plastic Copper Gallium Arsenide Ceramics Aluminum Rubber Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Semi-conductors: The most commonly used semiconductor material is Silicon. It has four valence electrons in its outer most shell which it shares with its adjacent atoms in forming covalent bonds. The structure of the bond between two silicon atoms is such that each atom shares one electron with its neighbour making the bond very stable. The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of a 'normal' pure crystal of Silicon Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Donors and Acceptors in the Periodic Table: I II III IV V VI VII ZERO H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Cd In Sn Sb Te Xe Acceptors Impurity Donors Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU N-type Semiconductor In order for our silicon crystal to conduct electricity, we need to introduce an impurity atom such as Arsenic, Antimony or Phosphorus into the Si crystalline structure. These atoms have five outer electrons in their outermost co-valent bond to share with other atoms and are commonly called "Pentavalent" impurities. The resulting semiconductor material has an excess of current-carrying electrons, each with a negative charge, and is therefore referred to as "N-type" material with the electrons called "Majority Carriers" The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the donor impurity atom Antimony. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU P-Type Semiconductor If a "Trivalent" (3-electron) impurity is introduced into the Si crystal structure, such as Aluminum, Boron, Gallium or Indium, only three valence electrons are available in the outermost covalent bond meaning that the fourth bond cannot be formed. The vacancy of an electron in the bond is known as a hole. Therefore, a complete connection is not possible, giving the semiconductor material an abundance of positively charged carriers known as "holes" in the structure of the Si crystal. Addition of Boron causes conduction to consist mainly of positive charge carriers results in a "P-type" material and the positive holes are called "Majority Carriers" while the free electrons are called "Minority Carriers". The diagram above shows the structure and lattice of the acceptor impurity atom Boron. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Electron and Hole Mobility In solid-state physics, the electron mobility characterizes how quickly an electron can move through a metal or semiconductor, when pulled by an electric field. In semiconductors, there is an analogous quantity for holes, called hole mobility. The term carrier mobility refers in general to both electron and hole mobility in semiconductors. Electron and hole mobility are special cases of electrical mobility of charged particles in a fluid under an applied electric field. When an electric field E is applied across a piece of material, the electrons respond by moving with an average velocity called the drift velocity ( vd ). Then the electron mobility μ is defined as Electron mobility is almost always specified in units of cm2/(V·s). This is different from the SI unit of mobility, m2/(V·s). They are related by 1m2/(V·s) = 104cm2/(V·s). The hole mobility is smaller than that of the electron. μN = 580 Cm2/ V.Sec and μP = 230 Cm2 / V.Sec Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU The PN-junction When the P-type and N-type materials are joined (or fuse) together then a P-N Junction is formed. the resulting device that has been made is called a PN-junction Diode or Rectifier Diode. Symbol of the PN-Junction Diode Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU The Basic Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics. ID = IS(eVD /VT – 1) Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Diode Charateristic Equation: The diode V-I relationship is characterized by the following equation: ID = IS(eVD/VT – 1) VD = Bias Voltage ID = Current through Diode. ID is Negative for Reverse Bias and Positive for Forward Bias IS = Reverse Saturation Current  is the emission coefficient for the diode. For a silicon diode  is around 2 for low currents and goes down to about 1 at higher currents VT is the thermal equivalent voltage and is approximately 26 mV at room temperature. The equation to find VT at various temperatures is: k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K, T = temperature in Kelvin, q = 1.6 x 10-19 C Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Forward Biased Diode With forward biased the depletion layer is reduced and after the threshold level of voltage the majority charge carriers cross the depletion layer and the diode conducts or ON. The diode in forward mode after the threshold has low resistance. Forward Characteristics Curve for a Diode. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU A Reverse Biased Diode With the reversed biased junction the depletion layer is increased and the Majority charge carriers can not cross the depletion region. This condition represents the high resistance and the diode is said to be OFF. Reverse Characteristics Curve for a Diode. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Forward and Reversed Biased Diode Then we can say that an ideal small signal diode conducts current in one direction (forward-conducting) and blocks current in the other direction (reverse-blocking). Signal Diodes are used in a wide variety of applications such as a switch in rectifiers, limiters, snubbers or in wave-shaping circuits. Anode is positive with respect to Cathode Cathode is positive with respect to Anode Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Half-wave Rectifier Circuit During each "positive" half cycle of the AC sinewave, the diode is Forward Biased and current flows through it. The voltage across the load is then Vout = Vs. During each "negative" half cycle of the AC sinewave, the diode is Reverse Biased and No current flows through it. Therefore, in the negative half cycle of the supply, The output voltage Vout = 0. =VmSinθ 2π π 2π π The current on the DC side of the circuit flows in one direction only making the circuit Unidirectional and the value of the DC voltage VDC (i,.e., the average value) across the load resistor is calculated as follows. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Half-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor When rectification is used to provide a direct voltage power supply from an alternating source, the amount of ripple can be reduced by using larger value capacitors as shown in the Figure. After the peak voltage the capacitor discharges through the load resistor at the slower rate and thus increases the average value or the DC value. Half-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Example-1: Calculate the current (IDC) flowing through a 100Ω resistor connected to a 240v single phase half-wave rectifier as shown above, and also the power consumed by the load. Solution: Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Full-wave Rectifier Circuit-Full Wave Rectifier In a full-wave rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, together with a transformer whose secondary winding is split equally into two and has a common center tapped connection, (C). Now each diode conducts in turn when its Anode terminal is positive with respect to the center point C as shown in Figure. The output voltage(Vdc) can be analysed as follows. +ve Half Cycle -ve Half Cycle π π 2π Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU The Diode Bridge Rectifier Another type of circuit that produces full-wave rectification is that of the Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses 4 individual diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration to produce the desired output but does not require a special center tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below. The Negative Half-cycle The Positive Half-cycle Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor The full-wave bridge rectifier however, gives us a greater mean DC value (0.636Vmax) with less superimposed ripple while the output wveform is twice that of the frequency of the input supply frequency. We can therefore increase its average DC output level even higher by connecting a suitable smoothing capacitor across the output of the bridge circuit. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Zener Diode I-V Charcateristics Zener Diodes are used in the "REVERSE" bias mode. We can see that the zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant voltage regardless of the current flowing through the diode. This voltage across the diode (it's Zener Voltage, Vz) remains nearly constant even with large changes in current through the diode caused by variations in the supply voltage or load. This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source against supply or load variations. The diode will continue to regulate until the diode current falls below the minimum Iz value in the reverse breakdown region. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU The Zener Regulator Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilized voltage output by passing a small current through it from a voltage source via a suitable current limiting resistor, (RS). The DC output voltage from the half or full-wave rectifiers contains ripple. By connecting a simple zener stabilizer circuit as shown below across the output of the rectifier a more stable dc output voltage can be produced. =(VS - VZ ) / IZ Zener Diode Stabiliser Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Example -1. A 5.0v stabilized power supply is required from a 12V d.c. input source. The maximum power rating of the Zener diode is 2W. Using the circuit above calculate: a) The maximum current flowing in the Zener Diode. b) The value of the series resistor, RS c) The load current IL if a load resistor of 1kΩ is connected across the Zener diode. d) The total supply current IS Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Zener Diodes with different voltages and power ratings  BZX55 Zener Diode Power Rating 500mW 2.4V 2.7V 3.0V 3.3V 3.6V 3.9V 4.3V 4.7V 5.1V 5.6V 6.2V 6.8V 7.5V 8.2V 9.1V 10V 11V 12V 13V 15V 16V 18V 20V 22V 24V 27V 30V 33V 36V 39V 43V 47V   BZX85 Zener Diode Power Rating 1.3W 5.6 51V 56V 62V Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU rms and average relationship: Form Factor = Vrms = 1.11 Vav Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Diode Clippers The diode in a series clipper “clips” any voltage that does not forward bias it: A reverse-biasing polarity A forward-biasing polarity less than 0.7 V (for a silicon diode) Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Parallel Clippers The diode in a parallel clipper circuit “clips” any voltage that forward bias it. DC biasing can be added in series with the diode to change the clipping level. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Summary of Clipper Circuits Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Clampers A diode and capacitor can be combined to “clamp” an AC signal to a specific DC level. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Biased Clamper Circuits The input signal can be any type of waveform such as sine, square, and triangle waves. The DC source lets you adjust the DC clamping level. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Summary of Clamper Circuits Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU 33

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Voltage Doubler: Positive Half-Cycle D1 conducts D2 is switched off Capacitor C1 charges to Vm Negative Half-Cycle D1 is switched off D2 conducts Capacitor C2 charges to 2Vm Vout = VC2 = 2Vm Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Light-Emitting Diodes: Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large bandgap so movement of carriers across their depletion region emits photons of light energy. Lower bandgap LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) emit infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher bandgap energy emit visible light. Many stop lights are now starting to use LEDs because they are extremely bright and last longer than regular bulbs for a relatively low cost. The arrows in the LED representation indicate emitted light. A K Schematic Symbol for a Light-Emitting Diode Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Photodiodes: Photodiodes are sensitive to received light. They are constructed so their PN junction can be exposed to the outside through a clear window or lens. In Photoconductive mode the saturation current increases in proportion to the intensity of the received light. This type of diode is used in CD players. In Photovoltaic mode, when the PN junction is exposed to a certain wavelength of light, the diode generates voltage and can be used as an energy source. This type of diode is used in the production of solar power. Schematic Symbols for Photodiodes A K  Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Recombination produces light!! LIGHT EMITTING DIODE-LED: LED are semiconductor p-n junctions that under forward bias conditions can emit radiation by electroluminescence in the UV, visible or infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The qaunta of light energy released is approximately proportional to the band gap of the semiconductor. P-n junction Electrical Contacts Schematic Symbols for LED A K Recombination produces light!! Junction is biased to produce even more e-h and to inject electrons from n to p for recombination to happen Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

The BJT – Bipolar Junction Transistor The Two Types of BJT Transistors: npn pnp n p n p n p E C E C Cross Section Cross Section C B E B B C B E Schematic Symbol Schematic Symbol Collector doping is usually ~ 106 Base doping is slightly higher ~ 107 – 108 Emitter doping is much higher ~ 1015 Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU BJT Structure In this process, all steps are performed from the surface of the wafer Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

BJT Relationships - Equations IB - + C E IE IC B VBE VBC VCE IB IE IC - + VEB VCB B C E VEC npn IE = IB + IC VCE = -VBC + VBE pnp IE = IB + IC VEC = VEB - VCB Note: The equations seen above are for the transistor, not the circuit. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Transistor Configurations: Input = VBE & IB Output = VCE & IC Input = VEB & IE Output = VCB & IC Input = VBC & IB Output = VEC & IE Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU DC  and DC   = Common-base current gain  = Common-emitter current gain The relationships between the two parameters are: Note:  and  are sometimes referred to as dc and dc because the relationships being dealt with in the BJT are DC. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Example1: For a Common-Base NPN Circuit Configuration, Given: IB = 50  A , IC = 1 mA, Find: IE ,  , and . Solution: IE = IB + IC = 0.05 mA + 1 mA = 1.05 mA = IC / IB = 1 mA / 0.05 mA = 20  = IC / IE = 1 mA / 1.05 mA = 0.95238  could also be calculated using the value of  with the formula from the previous slide. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Cutoff Region IB = 0, IC = 0 (Transistor is OFF) Output Characteristics of Common Emitter Configuration There are three regions of operation: Active Region: The region where current curves are practically flat. In this region the JEB is forward bias and the JCB is reversed bias. In this region transistor acts as an amplifier. IB2 VCE IC Active Region Saturation Region (Transistor is ON) VSAT = 0.2V Cutoff Region IB = 0, IC = 0 (Transistor is OFF) IB4 IB3 IB1 2. Saturation Region: In this region both the junctions JEB and JCB are forward bias, as a result the barrier potential of the junctions cancel each other out causing a virtual short between collector and emitter terminals i. e. the transistor is ON. Output Characteristics of CE-Configuration 3. Cutoff Region: In this region both the junctions JEB and JCB are reverse bias, and thus the currents reduced to zero. In this region transistor behaves like an open switch, i. e. the transistor is OFF. Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Self Bias Circuit for Active Region: + VBE - IB IC IE Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU Example: In the self bias circuit the R1 = 30K, R2 = 10K, RC = 4.3K, RE = 1.3K, VCC =12V and β = 100. Find IB , IC , IE and VB , VC , VE , VCE. Solution: The self bias circuit and its Thevenin’s equivalent is given as follows. RC VC VE VB Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU VBB = IERE + VBE + IBRBB and IE = (1+β)IB Therefore, 3V = (1+100)IB x1.3 x1000 + 0.7V + IB x 7.5 x 1000 (101x1.3 + 7.5)x1000xIB = 3 – 0.7 138.8x1000xIB = 2.3 IB = 2.3 / (138.8x1000) A IB = 2.3 / (138.8) mA IB = 2.3x1000 / (138.8) µA IB = 16.57 µA Hence, IC = βIB =100x16.57 µA =1.657 mA IE = (1+β)IB = (1+100)x16.5 µA = 1.673 mA Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU

Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU VB = VBB – IB RB = 3V – 16.57x10-6x7.5x10+3 = 2.87V VB = 2.87V VE = IERE = 1.673 mA)(1.3K) = 2.17 V VE = 2.17V VBE =VB – VE = 2.87V – 2.17V = 0.7V VC = 12 – ICRC = 12 - (1.657 mA)x(4.3K) = 4.87 V VC = 4.87V Thus VC > VB ; The Collector Junction JC is reversed bias. VB > VE ; The Emitter Junction JE is forward bias. Therefore the transistor is in Active Region of operation. VCE = VC – VE = 4.87 - 2.17 = 2.7V Prof. Iqbal A. Khan, EED, UQU