Adolescent Behavior and Development In-Service Training

Physical Maturation Secondary sex characteristics are the physical characteristics other than genital, that indicate sexual maturity, such as body hair, breasts, and deepened voice Adaptation at puberty requires an integration of biological, psychological, and social changes The degree to which one’s body matches the desired or socially valued body build of the culture influences social acceptance by peers and adults

Physical Maturation: Physical Changes in Girls & Boys Concerns about Obesity – the greatest concern adolescent girls express about their bodies is the perception they are too fat, which may result in peer rejection Reactions to Breast Development and Menarche The development of breast buds is a welcome sign for most girls but menarche is associated with a mix of positive and negative feelings Menarche – the beginning of regular menstrual periods

Physical Maturation: Physical Changes in Girls & Boys (cont.) Although most girls are prepared by their mothers for menstruation, the topic is often handled as a matter of hygiene rather than as a sexual transition, and therefore many girls do not understand the relationship of menstruation to reproduction Boys generally welcome the changes, involving increase height and muscle mass, that bring them one step closer to adult maturity Boys are generally not well prepared by their parents with information on the maturation of their reproductive organs

Physical Maturation: The Secular Trend & Individual Differences in Maturation Rate A secular growth trend is a decrease over time in the average age at which physical maturation takes place Changes in hygiene, nutrition, and health care have contributed to an earlier growth spurt over the past century The age at onset of puberty and the rate of change in physical maturation vary Early and late maturing have psychological and social consequences for both boys and girl

Egocentrism & Decentering Egocentrism is the perception of one-self at the center of the world; the view that others base their behavior on or events occur as a result of one’s own perceptions Decentering is gaining some objectivity over one’s own point of view, reducing the dominance of one’s subjective perspective in the interpretation of events

Egocentrism 2 Characteristics of Egocentrism that may affect adolescents; social interactions as well as their problem solving are: Preoccupation with their own thoughts Belief that others are also preoccupied with their thoughts Personal Fable - an intense investment in one’s own thoughts and feelings, and a belief that these thoughts are unique Imaginary Audience – adolescents assume that they are the center of interest in others’ thoughts and attentions

Emotional Development Descriptions of adolescence often refer to new levels of emotional variability, moodiness, and emotional outbursts Some researchers have questioned whether adolescence really brings the peaks and valleys of emotional intensity that are stereotypically linked to this time of life Given the likelihood of a more differentiated range of emotions during adolescence, a major task during this time is to gain a tolerance of one’s emotionality

Emotional Development: Eating Disorders Eating disorders are an example of internalizing problems, turning one’s frustration, anger, or fear inward on the self Anorexia is characterized by a fear of gaining weight, refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight, and perceptions of one’s body as overweight in general or in specific area Bulimia involves spurts of binging and overeating followed by the use of different strategies to prevent the absorption of food, such as induced vomiting, the use of laxatives, or strenuous exercise

Emotional Development: Eating Disorders (cont.) Origins of eating disorders are not fully understood: A preoccupation with body appearance may be provoked by the relatively rapid physical changes associated with puberty Because of the seriousness and widespread nature of eating disorders, public health experts are working to create a more positive acceptance of people of various body types and shapes, with less focus on thinness

Emotional Development: Depression Depression is a state of feeling sad, often accompanied by feelings of low personal worth and withdrawal from relationships with others Depressed mood refers to feelings of sadness, a loss of hope, a sense of being overwhelmed by the demands of the world, and general unhappiness Depressive syndrome refers to a constellation of behaviors and emotions that occur together. The syndrome usually includes complaints about feeling depressed, anxious, fearful, worried, guilty, and worthless

Emotional Development: Depression (cont.) Major Depressive disorder is characterized by a person who has experience 5 or more symptoms for at least two weeks: depressed mood or irritable mood most of the day; decreased interest in pleasurable activities; changes in weight or perhaps failure to make necessary weight gains in adolescence; sleep problems; psychomotor agitation or retardation; fatigue or loss of energy, feeling of worthlessness or abnormal amounts of guilt; reduced concentration and decision-making ability; and repeated suicidal ideation, attempts , or plans of suicide

Emotional Development: Factors Associated with Adolescent Depression & Gender Differences in Depression Adolescents face a number of challenges that make them vulnerable to depression Parental loss or rejection has been found to increase an adolescent’s vulnerability to depression Researchers recognize that adolescents are often exposed to more negative events and hassles than are younger children: social alienation, excessive demands, romantic concerns, decisions about one’s personal future, loneliness and unpopularity, assorted annoyances and concerns, social mistreatment, and academic challenges

Emotional Development: Factors Associated with Adolescent Depression & Gender Differences in Depression (cont.) Adolescents are relatively inexperienced in coping with these kind of stressors Most studies find no differences in depression between prepubescent boys and girls; however, during the period from about age 11 to 15, gender differences are systematically noted and continue to be evident into adulthood, with depression more common in females than in males

Membership in the Peer Group: Cliques and Crowds & Peer Group Boundaries and Norms Before the adolescent period, it is important to have friends, but not as important to be a member of a definable group Cliques are small friendship groups of 5 to 10 friends, and these groups provide the framework for frequent interactions both within school and in the neighborhood A crowd refers to a large group that is usually recognized by a few predominant characteristics such as their orientation toward academics, involvement in athletics, use of drugs, or involvement in deviant behavior

Membership in the Peer Group: Cliques and Crowds & Peer Group Boundaries and Norms (cont.) Popularity and acceptance into a peer group at the high school may be based on one or more of the following characteristics: good looks, athletic ability, social class, academic performance, future goals, affiliation with a religious, racial, or ethnic group, special talents, involvement with drugs or deviant behavior, general alienation from school Membership in cliques is relatively stable, but always vulnerable to change

Membership in the Peer Group: Cliques and Crowds & Peer Group Boundaries and Norms (cont.) Important skills that are learned by becoming a member of a peer group are the assessment of group structure and the selection of the particular group or groups with which one would like to affiliate Membership in an adolescent peer group is a forerunner of membership in an adult social group

Sexual Relationships The Transition into Sexualized Relationships Most young people are involved in a variety of romantic relationships during adolescence, including dating, feeling of tenderness and love, and deepening commitments Dating Relationships provide the initial context for most sexual activity.

Sexual Relationships First Intercourse or the transition into sexual activity may take place in very different contexts for adolescents Usually the earlier the transition into sexual activity and intercourse the more likely the act is to be part of a profile of high-risk behaviors, including alcohol use, drug use, and delinquent activity

Sexual Relationships: Sexual Orientation One might assume that sexual orientation – heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual – begins to take shape in early adolescence; the research on this point suggests an earlier and more differentiated path For sexual – minority youth, two aspects of a sexual orientation have been identified: Self-labeling – applying a label such as gay, lesbian, or bisexual to one-self Disclosure – sharing this information with others

Sexual Relationships: Problems and Conflicts Associated with Sexuality The sexual system is one of the most problematic components of psychosocial development for young people in the United States Most parents do not feel comfortable discussing sexuality with their children. Sexually Transmitted Disease About 25% of sexually active teens contract a sexually transmitted disease each year. Teens are especially at risk for Chlamydia, genital herpes, and gonorrhea

Sexual Relationships: Problems and Conflicts Associated with Sexuality (cont.) Unwanted Sexual Attention Often teen do not find the emotional closeness and understanding they may seek in a sexually intimate relationship Many instances of unwanted sexual contact occur on the first date or in a dating relationship The lack of supervision and monitoring by adults as well as the lack of opportunity to talk about sexuality with them can place adolescents at risk for early sexual experiences that are abusive or associated with negative feelings

Sexual Relationships: Problems and Conflicts Associated with Sexuality (cont.) Contraception In spite of the fact that many parents and teachers do not provide information about the use of contraceptives as part of their education about sex and sexual behavior, the use of contraceptives by U.S. teens has increased The use of contraceptives is associated with religious beliefs, family attitudes and behaviors, and peer norms

Sexual Relationships: Parenthood in Early Adolescence Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy Poverty Increased Risk of Child Abuse Increase risk of birth complications associated with lack of prenatal care Adolescent Fathers Although the focus on adolescent pregnancy has been on girls, there is growing concern about adolescent fathers. While most fathers of babies born to teen mothers are within 2 years of the mother’s age, about 20% are 5 or more years older than the mother

Sexual Relationships: Parenthood in Early Adolescence (cont.) Most studies of adolescent pregnancy find that, contrary to the stereotype, many fathers remain in contact with the mother and child in the first months after the child is born However, by the time the children are in school, contact drops off Fathering a child is bound to stimulate conflicting feelings of pride, guilt, and anxiety in the adolescent boy Little systematic research has been done on the attitudes, knowledge, or behaviors of adolescent fathers or the impact of fatherhood on a teenage boy’s subsequent development

The Psychosocial Crisis: Group Identity Versus Alienation Group Identity – the positive pole of the psychosocial crises of early adolescence in which the person finds membership in and value convergence with a peer group. Cognitive Processes that Support the Formation of Group Identity Group Representations Group Operations Reflective Thinking about Groups Four Dimensions of Group Identity Categorizing People and Recognizing Distinguishing Features of Group Members

The Psychosocial Crisis: Group Identity Versus Alienation (cont.) Experiencing a Sense of History as a Member of a Group Emotional Investment in the Group Social Evaluation of One’s Group and its Relation to Other Groups Alienation – withdrawal or separation of people or their affections from an object or position of former attachment The Contribution of Alienation to Group Identity and Individual Identity is important A period of feeling alone and lonely may help teens appreciate how good social acceptance feels and how important it is for their well being.

The Psychosocial Crisis: The assessment of the importance of certain content areas in relation to others influences the use of resources, the direction of certain decisions, and the kinds of experiences that may be perceived as most personally rewarding or threatening Both the content and evaluation components of identity may change over the life course

The Central Process: Peer Pressure Peer pressure refers to the demand for conformity to group norms and a demonstration of commitment and loyalty to group members Peer pressure is often used with a negative connotation, suggesting that young people behave in ways that go against their beliefs or values because of a fear of peer rejection However peer pressure can have an alternative meaning, one that highlights the emerging role of the peer group in the radius of significant others

The Central Process: Peer Pressure (cont.) Affiliating with a Peer Group – provides the context within which the crises of group identity versus alienation is resolved Peer Pressure in Specific Areas – time spent with peers, school, and family; academic achievement; drug use; engaging in misconduct; sexual activity; religious participation; community service; or preference in dress, music, or entertainment Conflicts Between Belonging and Personal Autonomy – peer groups do not command total conformity; most depend on the unique characteristics of their members to lend definition and vigor to the roles that emerge within them

The Central Process: Peer Pressure (cont.) Ethnic Group Identity – knowing that one is a member of a certain ethnic group; recognizing that aspects of one’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by ethnic membership; and taking the ethnic-group values, outlook, and the goals into account when making life choices

Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Use Factors Associated with Alcohol Use Physical Effects of Alcohol – death may result from chugging, when combined with other drugs, and when driving under the influence Assessment of Risk – adolescents do not view alcohol drinking as risky and may use it as sensation seeking behavior Reference Groups – the two reference groups that influence the acceptability of drinking and the manner in which alcohol is consumed are the family and the peer group

Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Use (cont.) Early Entry into Alcohol and Drug Use – Children who perceived that many of their friends had been drinking and who experienced peer pressure to drink were more likely to drink Children who were in classrooms where a larger number of children reported drinking were also at greatest risk of drinking. Perceptions of the amount of drinking that occurred in the family were also an important predictor of early alcohol use Binge Drinking

Autonomy from Parents: Autonomy Achieving a psychological sense of autonomy from one’s parents must be understood as a multidimensional task that is accomplished gradually over the course of later adolescence and early adulthood Autonomy is an ability regulate one’s own behavior with undue control from or dependence on one’s parents Autonomy requires independence of thoughts, emotions, and actions

Autonomy from Parents: Autonomy (cont.) Beyond these physical requirements, autonomy involves a psychological sense of confidence about one’s unique point of view and an ability to express opinions and beliefs that may differ from those of one’s parents. Differentiation, the family-system concept, has been associated with psychosocial maturity and a healthy emergence of individuality in adolescence

Autonomy from Parents: Leaving Home, the College Experience, and Self Sufficiency Living away form one’s parent’s household may be a symbol of independence; however, it is not as readily achievable in the age range of 18 to 24 as it was in the past Parents and adolescent children have different views about the age at which children are expected to leave home Economic factors and social norms play a significant role in the timing of leaving home Going away to college is a transition between parent’s home and living on your own

Autonomy from Parents: College freshmen express a variety of attitudes that suggest different views about their desire to be independent from their family Revision of Attachment with Parents is revisited when entering college For students who live on campus, preoccupation with thoughts and concerns about their parents tends to diminish over the course of the first semester, while new relationships form and a new confidence in their independent decision making builds Making independent decisions, taking responsibility for one’s actions, and achieving some degree of financial independence is part of establishing a sense of self-sufficiency

Gender Identity: The Role of Culture Acquisition of a set of beliefs, attitudes, and values about oneself as a man or a woman in many areas of social life, including intimate relationship, family, work, community, and religion All cultures construct gender-differentiated roles, and people expect one another to behave in certain ways because they are male or female Others argue that men and women should be considered equal, but that they should be treated in ways that take into account differences in their needs and capacities

Gender Identity: Reevaluating Gender Constancy & Reevaluating Old Sex-Role Standards and Learning New Ones Later adolescents can appreciate that the use of gender labels is a social convention and that, apart form the genital basis of this label, there are wide individual differences within gender groups in most traits and abilities As later adolescents learn about cultural, institutional, interpersonal, and individual level gender-role expectations, they must integrate and synthesize them with their assessments of their personal needs and goals

Gender Identity: Revising One’s Childhood Identifications, Adding a Sexual Dimension to Gender Identity and Finalizing Gender-Role Preference The component of parental identifications that contributes to gender identity is also reviewed and revised in later adolescence During this time, young people begin to encounter a wide range of possible targets for identification In addition to revisions in parental identifications, later adolescents add a sexual dimension to their gender identity that did not play much of a role in their child gender-role identifications

Gender Identity: Notions of physical attractiveness become more salient during this time Maturation of the hormonal system, which influences emotional arousal as well as sexual urges, contributes to the development of one’s gender identity If later adolescents become aware that their gender prevents them from having access to resources, influence, and decision-making authority, they are likely to experience a decline in their gender-role preference

Internalized Morality New Cognitive Capacities & Experiences that Promote Moral Reasoning Later adolescents explore the distinction between social conventions and moral issues Later adolescents bring new cognitive capacities to the arena of moral decision making Later adolescents are able to consider the multiple perspectives that are possible in a moral situation They are increasingly aware of the rights and needs of others, and they are able to step outside the situation in order to examine how an action may satisfy their own needs but harm others

Internalized Morality: Through participation in thought-provoking discussions or challenging life experiences, moral reasoning can advance to the next higher level Exposure to a diversity of information, relationships, and worldviews stimulates moral reasoning

Internalized Morality: Kohlberg’s View Gilligan”s View Eisenberg’s Model

Psychosocial Crisis Individual Identity Versus Identity Confusion The Content Component of Identity The private self is a sense of self, which refers to one’s uniqueness and unity, a subjective experience of being self-reflective The public self includes the many roles one plays and the expectations of others The Evaluation Component of Identity The significance one places on various aspects of the identity content

The Psychosocial Crisis: Identity Formation for Males and Females Questions have been raised about the process of identity formation and its outcome for young men and women in our society Some investigators have argued that the concept of identity as It has been formulated is a reflection of a male-oriented culture that focuses heavily on occupation and ideology rather than on interpersonal commitments

Psychosocial Crisis Men and women appear to handle the process of role experimentation and identity achievement somewhat differently Other researchers point out that Erikson’s construct of personal identity is embedded in relational context Other evidence of gender differences has been found in the content of the identity

Adolescent Behavior and Development In-Service Training This training presentation is available for download at: www.utahparenting.org © 2007 Utah Youth Village.