Falkné dr. Bánó Klára BGF Külkereskedelmi Főiskolai Kar MOTIVATION theories

What is Motivation? The study of motivation is about why people behave in a certain way. Motivation can be described as the direction and persistence of action. It is about why people choose a particular course of action and why they continue with a chosen action even in the face of difficulties and problems.

Four common characteristics which underlie the definition of motivation (Mitchell): Motivation - individual phenomenon Motivation - intentional Motivation is multifaceted – The two most important factors: - what gets people activated (arousal) - the force of an individual to engage in desired behaviour (direction or choice of behaviour) The purpose of motivational theories is to predict behaviour.

Four common characteristics which underlie the definition of motivation (Mitchell): Motivation is not the behaviour itself, and it is not performance. Motivation concerns action, and the internal and external forces which influence a person’s choice of action. On the basis of these characteristics: ‘Motivation is the degree to which an individual wants and chooses to engage in certain specified behaviours.’

The underlying concept of motivation The underlying concept of motivation is some driving force within individuals by which they attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil some need or expectation. This concept gives rise to the basic motivational model.

A simplified illustration of the basic motivational model (Mullins) NEEDS OR EXPECTATIONS DRIVING FORCE (behaviour or action) result in DESIRED GOALS to achieve FULFILMENT which providefeedback

Motivation is influenced by many variables People’s behaviour is determined by what motivates them. Their performance is a product of both ability level and motivation. Motivation is a complex subject, it is a very personal thing and it is influenced by many variables. Individuals have a variety of changing, and often conflicting, needs and expectations which they attempt to satisfy in different ways.

A useful three-fold classification for the motivation to work: Economic Rewards Intrinsic Satisfaction Social Relationships NEEDS AND EXPECTATIONS AT WORK

Frustration-induced behaviour If a person’s motivational driving force is blocked before reaching the desired goal, there are Two possible sets of outcomes: constructive behaviour – positive reaction 1. problem solving 2. restructuring or compromise frustration – negative response to the blockage of a desired goal, results in a defensive form of behaviour

Frustration – possible reactions Aggression – physical or verbal attack on some person or object – displaced aggression-find a scapegoat for the outlet of frustration Regression – reverting to a childish or more primitive form of behaviour, e.g. crying, sulking Fixation – persisting in a form of behaviour which has no adaptive value, repeating actions with no positive results, e.g. trying a machine again and again which will not work Withdrawal – apathy, giving up, e.g. absenteeism

Forms of frustration-induced behaviours-usually combined Most forms of frustration-induced behaviours are a combination of aggression, regression and fixation.

An overview of the main theories of work motivation

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model

Needs levelsGeneral rewardsOrganisational factors Applying Maslow’s need hierarchy

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Relationships among Maslow’s, Alderfer’s and Herzberg’s theories of motivation:

McClelland’s achievement motivation theory McClelland identified four main motives: Achievement motive Power motive Affiliative motives Avoidance motives (These correspond to Maslow’s self actualisation, esteem and love needs.) He saw achievement need as the most critical for a country’s economic success and growth. Managers seem to be higher in achievement motivation than in affiliation motivation.

McClelland’s achievement motivation theory (cont.) Four characteristics of people with a strong achievement need: preference for moderate task difficulty personal responsibility for performance need for clear and unambiguous feedback innovativeness

High achievers – environmental influences McClelland’s research has attempted to understand the characteristics of high achievers. Strong achievement need is not hereditary but results from environmental influences. - training programmes to increase the achievement motivation of managers

Process Theories of Motivation Process theories place emphasis on the actual process of motivation. They attempt to identify the relationships among the dynamic variables which make up motivation, and how behaviour is initiated, directed and sustained.

Major approaches in process theories: Expectancy-based models –Vroom Porter and Lawler Equity theory - Adams Goal theory - Locke Attribution theory - Heider and Kelley

Expectancy theory The underlying basis of expectancy theory is that people are influenced by the expected results of their actions. Motivation is a function of the relationship between: effort expended and perceived level of performance the expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be related to performance expectation that rewards are available

Expectancy theory (cont.) These relationships determine the strength of the ‘motivational link’. The choice of behaviour is based on the expectancy of the most favourable consequences. Vroom – 3 key variables: 1. valence of outcomes 2. instrumentality 3. expectancy First-level outcomes – performance related Second-level outcomes - need related

What is expectancy? People develop a perception of the degree of probability that the choice of a particular action will lead to the desired outcome. This is expectancy. – It is the relationship between a chosen course of action and its predicted outcome.

Basic model of expectancy theory

Equity theory - Adams Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly they have been treated in comparison with the treatment received by others.

Adams’ equity theory of motivation

Goal theory - Locke The basic premise of goal theory is that people’s goals or intensions play an important part in determining behaviour.

Locke’s theory of goal setting