Chapter 14 Jobs & the Design of Work Nelson & Quick

Job Compared to Work Job - a set of specified work and task activities that engage an individual in an organization Work - mental or physical activity that has productive results Meaning of Work - the way a person interprets and understands the value of work as part of life f life

F - activity constrained B - provides personal affect & identity A - value comes from performance. Accountability is important C - profit accrues to others by work performance D - physical activity directed by others and performed in a workplace E - generally unpleasant physically & mentally strenuous activity Six Patterns of Work F - activity constrained to specific time periods; no positive affect through its performance

Approaches to Job Design Scientific Management Job Characteristics Traditional Approaches to Job Design Job enlargement/ Job rotation Job Enrichment

Scientific Management Emphasizes work simplification (standardization and the narrow, explicit specification of task activities for workers) + Allows diverse groups to work together + leads to production efficiency and higher profits - Undervalues the human capacity for thought and ingenuity

Cross-training - a variation of job enlargement in which workers Job enlargement - a method of job design that increases the number of activities in a job to overcome the boredom of overspecialized work Job rotation - a variation of job enlargement in which workers are exposed to a variety of specialized jobs over time Cross-training - a variation of job enlargement in which workers are trained in different specialized tasks or activities Job enlargement Job rotation

Job enrichment - designing or redesigning jobs by incorporating motivational factors into them Emphasis is on recognition, responsibility, and advancement opportunity Job Enrichment

Job Characteristics Model - a framework for understanding of core job dimensions with critical psychological states within a person Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) - the survey instrument designed to measure the elements in the job Characteristics Model

Five Core Job Characteristics Motivating Potential Score MPS = Skill variety Task identity significance x [Autonomy] x [Feedback] 3 +

Job Characteristics Model Personal and work outcomes Core job dimensions Critical psychological states Skill variety Task identity Task significance Experienced work’s meaningfulness Experienced responsibility for work’s outcomes Knowledge of work activities’ results High internal work motivation High quality work performance High satisfaction with the work Low absenteeism and turnover Autonomy Feedback Employee growth, need, strength J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, “The Relationship Among Core Job Dimensions, the Critical Psychological States, and On-the-Job Outcomes,” The Job Diagnostic Survey: An Instrument for the Diagnosis of Jobs and the Evaluation of Job Redesign Projects, 1974. Reprinted by permission of Greg R. Oldham. 2

Social Information Processing (SIP) model SIP Model - a model that suggests that the important job factors depend in part on what others tell a person about the job Four premises 1) people provide cues to understanding the work environment 2) people help us judge our jobs 3) people tell us how they see our jobs 4) people’s positive & negative feedback help us understand our feelings about our jobs

Interdisciplinary Approach Mechanistic Motivational Biological Perceptual/motor No one approach can solve all performance problems caused by poorly designed jobs

- - + + Outcomes of Various Job Design Approaches Decreased training time Higher utilization levels Lower error likelihood Less mental overload Lower stress levels Higher job satisfaction Higher motivation Greater job involvement Higher job performance Lower absenteeism Mechanistic Approach Motivational Approach + + - - Lower job satisfaction Lower motivation Higher absenteeism Increased training time Lower personnel utilization Greater chance of errors Greater chance of mental overload and stress 3

- - + + Outcomes of Various Job Design Approaches Less physical effort Less physical fatigue Fewer health complaints Fewer medical incidents Lower absenteeism Higher job satisfaction High job satisfaction Higher motivation Greater job involvement Higher job performance Lower absenteeism Biological Approach Perceptual Motor Approach + + - - Higher financial costs because of changes in equipment or job environment Lower job satisfaction Lower motivation 3

International Perspectives on the Design of Work The Japanese Approach Emphasizes strategic level Encourages collective and cooperative working arrangements Emphasizes lean production

International Perspectives on the Design of Work The German Approach Technocentric - Placing technology and engineering at the center of job design decisions (traditional German Approach) Anthropocentric - Placing human considerations at the center of job design decisions (more recent German approach)

International Perspectives on the Design of Work The Scandinavian Approach encourages high degrees of worker control encourages good social support systems for workers

assignment to disciplines Problem areas & assignment to disciplines Technical, anthropo-metric, & psychophysical problems Technical, physiological, & medical problems Economical & sociological Sociopsychological & economic problems Levels of evaluation of human work Practicability Endurability Acceptability Worker Satisfaction Scientific approaches of labor sciences View from natural science Primarily oriented to individuals Primarily oriented to groups View from cultural studies H. Luczak, “’Good Work’ Design: An Ergonomic, Industrial Engineering Perspective,” in J.C. Quick, L.R. Murphy, and J. J. Hurrell, eds. Stress and Well-Being at Work (Washington, D.C.): American Psychological Association. Repreinted by permission.

Work Design and Well-Being: To increase control in work organizations Give workers the opportunity to control aspects of work & workplace Design machines and tasks with optimal response times and/or ranges Implement performance-monitoring systems as source of worker feedback

Work Design and Well-Being: To reduce uncertainty Provide employees with timely and complete work information needed Make clear and unambiguous work assignments Improve communication at shift change time Increase employee access to information sources

Work Design and Well-Being: To manage conflict Use participative decision making to reduce conflict Use supportive supervisory styles to resolve conflict Provide sufficient resource availability to meet work demands, thus preventing conflict

Emerging Issues in Design of Work Telecommuting - employees work at home or in other locations geographically separate from their company’s main location Alternative work patterns Job sharing - an alternative work pattern in which there is more than one person occupying a single job Flextime - an alternative work pattern through which employees can set their own daily work schedules

Emerging Issues in Design of Work Technology at work Virtual office - a mobile platform of computer, telecommunication, and information technology and services Technostress - the stress cause by new and advancing technologies in the workplace Task revision - the modification of incorrectly specified roles or jobs Skill development

Performance Consequences of Role Behaviors Characteristics Standard Behavior Extra-role Counter-role Correctly Specified Role Ordinary good performance Excellent performance (organizational citizenship and prosocial behavior) Poor performance (deviance, dissent, and grievance) Incorrectly Specified Role Poor performance Very Poor performance (bureaucratic zeal) Excellent performance (task revision and redirection, role innovation) Counter-role behavior - deviant behavior in either a correctly or incorrectly defined job or role Republished with permission of Academy of Management, PO Box 3020, Briar Cliff Manor, NY 10510-8020. “Task Revision: A Neglected Form of Work Performance,” (Table), R. M. Straw & R. D. Boettger, Academy of Management Journal, 1990, Vol. 33. Reproduced by permission of the publisher via Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

The Manager’s Task: Fit the Jobs to the People Who Are Doing Them