Sampling Methods Assist. Prof. E. Çiğdem Kaspar,Ph.D.

Reasons for Sampling Samples can be studied more quickly than populations. A study of a sample is less expensive than studying an entire population, because smaller number of items or subjects are examined. This consideration is especially important in the design of large studies that require a length follow-up. A study of an entire population (census) is impossible in most situations. Sometimes, the process of the study destroys or depletes the item being studied.

Sample results are often more accurate than results based on a population. If samples are properly selected, probability methods can be used to estimate the error in the resulting statistics. It is this aspect of sampling that permits investigators to make probability statements about observations in a study.

SAMPLING MEHODS The primary purpose of sampling is to estimate certain population parameters such as means, totals, proportions or ratios. A probabilty sample has the characteristic that every element in the population has a known, nonzero probablity of being included in the sample. A non- probability sample is one, that does not have this feature. Non-probability SamplingProbability Sampling

Probability Sampling Methods Simple Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Cluster Sampling A probability sample uses a random process to guarantee that each unit of the population has a specified chance of selection.

Simple Random Sampling A simple random sample is one in which every subject has an equal probability of being selected for the study. The recommended way to select a simple random sample is to use a table of random numbers or a computer-generated list of random numbers.

From a population of size N, in order to select a simple random sample of size n; 1.List and number each element in the population from 1 to N. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, , N-1, N 2. Determine the required sample size, n. 3. Select n random numbers by a random process, e.g. Table of random numbers or a sofware, MS Excell 4. Take subjects from the population corresponding to the selected random numbers. 5. Estimate the population values (parameters).

From a population of size N=500, select a random sample of size n=10. Number subjects from 1 to 500. From a random starting point, 838, move down. Take numbers ≤ , 404, 100, 215, 290, 479, 487, 69, 405, 290th subjects in the population will constitute the sample. Make observations on selected subjects. Estimate parameters.

Systematic Sampling A systematic random sample is one in which every kth item is selected; k is determined by dividing the number of items in the population by the desired sample size. N/n … i … k … i+k … i+2k … i+3k … N

Stratified Sampling A stratified random sample is one in which the population is first divided into relevant strata (subgroups), which are internally homogenous with respect to the variable of interest and a random sample is then selected from each stratum. Characteristics used to stratify should be related to the measurement of interest, in which case stratified random sampling is the most efficient, meaning that it requires the smallest sample size.

Strata Strata size Sample size 1 N 1 n 1 2 N 2 n 2 k N k n k TOTAL N n From each starta, select random samples independently, whose sizes are proportional to the size of that strata.

Cluster Sampling A cluster random sample results from a two-stage process in which the population is divided into clusters and a subset of the clusters is randomly selected. Clusters are commonly based on geographic areas or districts, so this approach is used more often in epidemiologic research than clinical studies.

Non-probability Sampling The sampling methods just discussed are all based on probability, but nonprobability sampling methods also exist, such as convenience samples or quota samples. Nonprobability samples are those in which the probability that a subject is selected is unknown. Nonprobability samples often reflect selection biases of the person doing the study and do not fulfill the requirements of randomness needed to estimate sampling error. When we use the term “sample” in the context of observational studies, we will assume that the sample has been randomly selected in an appropriate way.

Nonprobability sampling methods Convenience, Haphazard or Accidental sampling - members of the population are chosen based on their relative ease of access. To sample friends, co-workers, or shoppers at a single mall, are all examples of convenience sampling.Accidental samplingconvenience sampling Snowball sampling - The first respondent refers a friend. The friend also refers a friend, etc. Snowball sampling Judgmental sampling or Purposive sampling - The researcher chooses the sample based on who they think would be appropriate for the study. This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that have expertise in the area being researched. Deviant Case - Get cases that substantially differ from the dominant pattern (a special type of purposive sample). Case study - The research is limited to one group, often with a similar characteristic or of small size. ad hoc quotas - A quota is established (say 65% women) and researchers are free to choose any respondent they wish as long as the quota is met.