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To understand what public policy is, we must examine:  Who Makes Public Policy?  Types of Public Policy Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. What Is Public Policy?

 Article I, Section 8 grants Congress various powers, including the ability to tax and to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states. ◦ The power to tax allows government to raise revenue for its operations and services. ◦ The commerce clause has been the legal basis for a significant portion of federal law. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Public policy: Purposeful, goal-oriented action that deals with both real and perceived problems in a society. ◦ Governmental actors, including the legislature, executive branch, courts, and informal actors, such as interest groups, play a role in policymaking. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Public policy: ◦ Officials must make choices among various alternatives for the public as a whole. ◦ Policy decisions may involve a commitment to positive action or to refrain from action. ◦ Governmental actors, including the legislature, executive branch, courts, and informal actors, such as interest groups, play a role in policymaking. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Who Makes Public Policy? ◦ Four models have been developed to explain the public-policy process:  Group theory  Elite theory  Corporatism  Subgovernments Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Group theory: The theory that holds that public policy is a product of competition among groups in society.  Pluralism: A theory that holds that public policy authority is dispersed among many groups and individuals.  Various groups pressure government to make policies favoring the interests of those particular groups.  Public policy emerges from the struggle among groups with competing demands.  Each policy area has different problems and political actors. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Elite theory: The theory that holds that public policy is made by a relatively small group of influential leaders who share common outlooks and goals. ◦ The preferences of a “power elite” determine policy: officials adopt their preferences. ◦ Policy here is not shaped by the majority. Rather it serves the interests of a minority. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Corporatism: The theory that holds that groups in society do not merely attempt to influence public policy but are themselves part of the decision-making and implementation system.  The groups involved make society more manageable for government.  Examples are professional organizations of doctors and lawyers who set licensing standards for their fields. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Subgovernments: Also known as “iron triangles.” The theory that holds that policy is made by government’s endorsement of decisions made by sections of the government in alliance with interest groups. ◦ A related theory proposes that policy areas are dominated by more fluid and open “issue networks.” Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

◦ A subgovernment is a coalition of like- minded legislators, bureaucrats, and interest groups. ◦ Subgovernments are likely to be active in policy areas that get little public attention, such as the use of public land by ranching or mining interests. ◦ A related theory proposes that policy areas are dominated by more fluid and open “issue networks.” Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Types of Public Policy ◦ Public policies can be classified in various ways. One model groups them by their impact:  Regulatory policy: Rules of conduct established by government and enforced through sanctions. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Distributive policy: Those policies of government that provide tangible benefits to groups or individuals in a noncompetitive manner.  Redistributive policy: Those policies of government that reallocate resources among groups in society. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

◦ A 2nd model groups policies by benefits:  Material policies: Those policies that provide tangible resources or power to their beneficiaries or impose costs on groups in society.  Symbolic policies: Those policies that provide little or no tangible benefits but appeal to widely held values, such as justice, equality, and patriotism. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

◦ A 3rd model groups policies into 2 types:  Substantive policies: Those policies that embody actual plans of action and will provide individuals with advantages or disadvantages; what government is going to do.  Procedural policies: Those policies that deal with procedures, that is, how something will be done and who will perform the tasks involved. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

An Environmental Protection Administration coordinator inspects oil pollution after Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast, August 2005.

To understand the policymaking process, we must examine:  Stages of the Process  The Context of Policymaking  The Structure of Policymaking Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Policymaking Process

 Stages of the Process 1. Issue identification and agenda setting 2. Policy formulation 3. Policy adoption 4. Policy implementation 5. Policy evaluation Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Issue Identification and Agenda Setting ◦ The attention of policymakers is drawn to a problem that might require governmental action. ◦ Agenda: The list of issues to which government and nongovernmental actors are paying serious attention at any given time. ◦ Agenda setting: The process by which the full range of possible issues is narrowed down to the few that will be focused on by policymakers. ◦ An issue may move onto the policy agenda if:  The public views it as critical.  A strong and visible interest group advocates addressing it.  Part of the bureaucracy believes it needs attention. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

◦ Policy Formulation and Adoption  Policy formulation: The process of creating a supportable course of action for dealing with a specific problem. This may or may not lead to adoption of a specific policy.  Policy formulation requires 2 steps:  A decision must be made about a course of action.  A policy that can achieve the desired outcome must be drafted. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Actors involved in formulation may include:  Legislators  The president and advisers  Executive agencies  Interest groups  The more actors involved the more difficult it will be to find an acceptable proposal. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

◦ Policy Implementation  Implementation: The directed change that occurs over time following the adoption of a new policy by government.  Included is a long and complex chain of events.  The process may become bureaucratic and subject to numerous rules and regulations.  The original policy may be altered at this stage, changing to reflect the objectives of the bureaucrats charged with its implementation. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

◦ Policy Evaluation  Policies may not always achieve their objectives and may have unintended consequences.  Thus they need to be examined for how they are being implemented and their outcomes.  Process evaluation: Looks at the extent to which a policy is implemented according to the guidelines laid out in law.  Impact evaluation: Examines the degree to which the policy is causing a change in the identified problem and the nature of the changes. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 The Context of Policymaking ◦ The overall context of a policy matters. Context includes:  The history of past policies in the same area  Environmental factors, including public opinion and social factors  Ideological conflict between liberals and conservatives  The budgetary process: Government must have the resources and be willing to devote them to a policy.  Bargaining and compromise among groups and governmental actors are usually involved. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

 The Structure of Policymaking ◦ Political scientists debate how decision making occurs. ◦ The rational choice model:  Problems and issues are addressed through a well-ordered sequence of steps.  Problems are identified.  Alternative solutions are formulated and ranked.  Which solution to follow is a rational decision. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

◦ Incrementalism:  The policy process has been described as “the science of muddling through.”  Policymaking is focused on present problems.  Current policies are fine-tuned in small steps. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

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