1. Questions for Consideration What is policy? What is policy? How do politics affect policy? How do politics affect policy? How is policy created How is policy created What strategies are used in policy? What strategies are used in policy?

2. What is Policy?

3. What is policy? Intentions of government actors Intentions of government actors Interpretations of various stakeholders Interpretations of various stakeholders Political compromise among policymakers Political compromise among policymakers By-product of games and relationships By-product of games and relationships Includes both ‘practices’ and also, the inactions of government Includes both ‘practices’ and also, the inactions of government Images of an ideal society Images of an ideal society

4. What is policy? Policy as Text Policy as Text Policy as Discourse Practice Policy as Discourse Practice Policy as Social Practice Policy as Social Practice

5. How do politics affect policy?

6. Political Organizing Principles Choice and Competition (C) Choice and Competition (C) Autonomy and performativity (A) Autonomy and performativity (A) Centralisation and prescription (P) Centralisation and prescription (P) Equality of opportunity (E) Equality of opportunity (E)

7. How is policy created?

8. Models of Policymaking Stage Stage Incrementalism Incrementalism Agenda Setting Agenda Setting Punctuated Equalibrium Punctuated Equalibrium Vs.

9. How is Policy created? Stage Process Issue Definition Agenda Setting Policy Formulation Implementation Policy Adoption Evaluation

10. How is Policy created? Kingdon Policy entrepreneurs become aware of the problem. Policy specialists are continuously coming up with solutions. Something occurs in the political arena that makes it amenable to new ideas. Streams are coupled by an entrepreneur Window of Opportunity Created by: Problem events or Political events. Kingdon’s Agenda Setting Model

11. Incrementalism Versus Punctuated Equilibrium Lindbloom Baumgartner & Jones

12. What strategies are used in Policy? Theodore Lowi’s Techniques of Control (1964) Theodore Lowi’s Techniques of Control (1964) McDonnell and Elmore’s Policy Instruments (1987) McDonnell and Elmore’s Policy Instruments (1987)

13. Lowi’s Techniques of Control TypeDistributiveRegulatoryRedistributive PurposeTo give favor or benefit to very specific and narrow interests To constrain the actions, or sanction the actions, of a group of interests To take benefits from one group and give them to another Type of Politics Elite - high access to decision makers, obscure issues with not much public knowledge, low conflict, no policy goal, decisions are made in committees or in the executive and then ratified by congress or other legislative body Group Theory - various interests coalesce around the policy issue, the issues focus make the coalitions very unstable, ideological nature means compromise rarely occurs, decision is fought out on the floor of the legislative body Iron triangle, subgovernment-involves large associations of groups, these associations are highly polarized and ideological, access to the decision can only be gained through one of the points of the triangle, typically compromise does not occur but concessions will be made to the loser, administration will eventually become ideologically aligned with winners and then legislative body takes on only a sanctioning role. ExamplePork barrel, defence contracts, highways, Jobs environmental regulations, special education legislation (as of late), School accountability special education legislation (original), Funding for the arts Potential to become symbolic Very LowHighExtremely High