POWERPOINT ® LECTURE SLIDE PRESENTATION by LYNN CIALDELLA, MA, MBA, The University of Texas at Austin Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY AN INTEGRATED APPROACH FOURTH EDITION DEE UNGLAUB SILVERTHORN UNIT 1 4 Energy and Cellular Metabolism

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings About this Chapter  Energy in biological systems  Chemical reactions  Enzymes  Metabolism  ATP production  Synthetic pathways

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-1 Energy: Biological Systems Energy transfer in the environment

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Energy: Capacity to Do Work  Chemical work  Making and breaking of chemical bonds  Transport work  Moving ions, molecules, and larger particles  Creates concentration gradients  Mechanical work  Used for movement

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-2a Energy: Two Forms The relationship between kinetic energy and potential energy

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-2b Energy: Two Forms

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-2c Energy: Two Forms

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Energy: Thermodynamics  First law of thermodynamics  Total amount of energy in the universe is constant  Second law of thermodynamics  Processes move from state of order to disorder or entropy

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-3 Chemical Reactions: Overview Activation energy is the energy that must be put into reactants before a reaction can proceed A + B  C + D

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-5 Chemical Reactions: Coupling Energy transfer and storage in biological reactions

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Enzymes: Overview  Speed up the rate of reactions  Isozymes  Catalyze same reaction but under different conditions  May be activated, inactivated, or modulated  Coenzymes  vitamins  Chemical modulators  temperature and pH

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-8 Enzymes: Speed Up Reactions Enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-9a Enzymes: Law of Mass Action

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-9b Enzymes: Law of Mass Action

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Enzymes: Types of Reactions TypesDescription 1. Oxidation-reduction+/- electrons or H + 2. Hydrolysis-dehydration+/- water 3. Addition-subtraction- exchange +/- or exchange groups 4. LigationJoins using ATP

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-10 Metabolism: Overview A group of metabolic pathways resembles a road map

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Metabolism: Cell Regulation  Controlling enzyme concentrations  Producing modulators  Feedback inhibition  Using different enzymes  Isolating enzymes  Maintaining ratio of ATP to ADP  ADP + Pi + energy  ATP

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-13 ATP Production: Overview Overview of aerobic pathways for ATP production

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-14 ATP Production: Glycolysis Glucose + 2 NAD ADP + P  2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H H 2 0

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-15 ATP Production: Pyruvate Metabolism Pyruvate can be converted into lactate or acetyl CoA

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-16 ATP Production: Citric Acid Cycle  Acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle producing 3 NADH, 1 FADH 2, and 1 ATP

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-17 CITRIC ACID CYCLE High-energy electrons H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ Cytosol Mitochondrial matrix Matrix pool of H + 4e – e–e– Inter- membrane space Inner mitochondrial membrane Outer mitochondrial membrane ADP + P i High-energy electrons from glycolysis Energy released during metabolism is captured by high- energy electrons carried by NADH and FADH 2. Energy from high-energy electrons moving along the protein complexes of the electron transport system pumps H + from the matrix into the intermembrane space. Electrons at the end of the electron transport system are back to their normal energy state. They combine with H + and oxygen to form water. Potential energy captured in the H + concentration gradient is converted to kinetic energy when H + pass through the ATP synthase. Some of the kinetic energy is captured as ATP. High-energy electrons Electron transport system ATP O H 2 O ATP synthase ATP Production: Electron Transport

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-17, step 1 ATP Production: Electron Transport CITRIC ACID CYCLE High-energy electrons Cytosol Mitochondrial matrix e–e– Inter- membrane space Inner mitochondrial membrane Outer mitochondrial membrane High-energy electrons from glycolysis Energy released during metabolism is captured by high- energy electrons carried by NADH and FADH 2. High-energy electrons Electron transport system 1 1

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-17, steps 1–2 ATP Production: Electron Transport CITRIC ACID CYCLE High-energy electrons H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ Cytosol Mitochondrial matrix e–e– Inter- membrane space Inner mitochondrial membrane Outer mitochondrial membrane High-energy electrons from glycolysis Energy from high-energy electrons moving along the protein complexes of the electron transport system pumps H + from the matrix into the intermembrane space. High-energy electrons Electron transport system e–e– Energy released during metabolism is captured by high- energy electrons carried by NADH and FADH 2. 1

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-17, steps 1–3 ATP Production: Electron Transport CITRIC ACID CYCLE High-energy electrons H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ Cytosol Mitochondrial matrix Matrix pool of H + 4e – e–e– Inter- membrane space Inner mitochondrial membrane Outer mitochondrial membrane High-energy electrons from glycolysis Electrons at the end of the electron transport system are back to their normal energy state. They combine with H + and oxygen to form water. High-energy electrons Electron transport system O H 2 O Energy from high-energy electrons moving along the protein complexes of the electron transport system pumps H + from the matrix into the intermembrane space. 2 Energy released during metabolism is captured by high- energy electrons carried by NADH and FADH 2. 1

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-17, steps 1–4 ATP Production: Electron Transport CITRIC ACID CYCLE High-energy electrons H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ H+H+ Cytosol Mitochondrial matrix Matrix pool of H + 4e – e–e– Inter- membrane space Inner mitochondrial membrane Outer mitochondrial membrane ADP + P i High-energy electrons from glycolysis Energy released during metabolism is captured by high- energy electrons carried by NADH and FADH 2. Energy from high-energy electrons moving along the protein complexes of the electron transport system pumps H + from the matrix into the intermembrane space. Electrons at the end of the electron transport system are back to their normal energy state. They combine with H + and oxygen to form water. Potential energy captured in the H + concentration gradient is converted to kinetic energy when H + pass through the ATP synthase. Some of the kinetic energy is captured as ATP. High-energy electrons Electron transport system ATP O H 2 O ATP synthase NADH and FADH 2  ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings ATP Production: Large Biomolecules  Glycogenolysis  Glycogen  Storage form of glucose in liver and skeletal muscle  Converted to glucose or glucose 6-phosphate

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings ATP Production: Large Biomolecules  Protein catabolism and deamination  Catabolism  Hydrolysis of peptide bonds  Deamination  Removal of amino group

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-20 ATP Production: Lipolysis If acetyl CoA production exceeds capacity for metabolism, production of ketone bodies results

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-21 Synthesis: Gluconeogenesis Glucose can be made from glycerol or amino acids in liver and kidney

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-22 Synthesis: Lipids

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-22 (1 of 3) Synthesis: Lipids

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-22 (2 of 3) Synthesis: Lipids

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-22 (3 of 3) Synthesis: Lipids

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-22 Synthesis: Lipids

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-24 Synthesis: Protein The major steps required to convert the genetic code of DNA into a functional protein 20 different amino acids made from 4 nitrogenous bases Protein chain rRNA in ribosomes tRNA Amino acids Folding and cross-links Assembly into polymeric proteins Addition of groups: sugars lipids —CH3 phosphate Cleavage into smaller peptides TRANSLATION POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION Cytoplasm Gene Regulatory proteins Constitutively active Induction Alternative splicing Processed mRNA Interference mRNA Repression Regulated activity siRNA mRNA “silenced” GENE ACTIVATION TRANSCRIPTION mRNA PROCESSING Nucleus

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-24, step 1 Synthesis: Protein Cytoplasm Gene Regulatory proteins Constitutively active InductionRepression Regulated activity GENE ACTIVATION Nucleus 1

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-24, steps 1–2 Synthesis: Protein Cytoplasm Gene Regulatory proteins Constitutively active Induction mRNA Repression Regulated activity GENE ACTIVATION TRANSCRIPTION Nucleus 1 2

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-24, steps 1–3 Synthesis: Protein Cytoplasm Gene Regulatory proteins Constitutively active Induction Alternative splicing Processed mRNA Interference mRNA Repression Regulated activity siRNA mRNA “silenced” GENE ACTIVATION TRANSCRIPTION mRNA PROCESSING Nucleus 1 2 3

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-24, steps 1–4 Synthesis: Protein Protein chain rRNA in ribosomes tRNA Amino acids TRANSLATION Cytoplasm Alternative splicing Processed mRNA Interference siRNA mRNA “silenced” mRNA PROCESSING Nucleus 3 4 Gene Regulatory proteins Constitutively active Induction mRNA Repression Regulated activity GENE ACTIVATION TRANSCRIPTION 1 2

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-24, steps 1–5 Synthesis: Protein Protein chain rRNA in ribosomes tRNA Amino acids Folding and cross-links Assembly into polymeric proteins Addition of groups: sugars lipids —CH3 phosphate Cleavage into smaller peptides TRANSLATION POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION Cytoplasm Alternative splicing Processed mRNA Interference siRNA mRNA “silenced” mRNA PROCESSING Nucleus Gene Regulatory proteins Constitutively active Induction mRNA Repression Regulated activity GENE ACTIVATION TRANSCRIPTION 1 2

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein: Transcription  Transcription factors bind and activate promoter region  RNA polymerase binds and “unwinds” DNA  mRNA created from sense strand  mRNA is processed by  RNA interference  Alternative splicing

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-27 Protein: Transcription and Translation Asp PheTrp A G A A C C C A G C U U U U U U U U A A A A G G Lys Transcription mRNA processing Attachment of ribosomal subunits Translation Termination Ribosome Outgoing “empty” tRNA RNA polymerase tRNA DNA Nuclear membrane mRNA Amino acid Ribosomal subunits Completed peptide Each tRNA molecule attaches at one end to a specific amino acid. The anticodon of the tRNA molecule pairs with the appropriate codon on the mRNA, allowing amino acids to be linked in the order specified by the mRNA code. Growing peptide chain Incoming tRNA bound to an amino acid Anticodon mRNA

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-27, step 1 Protein: Transcription and Translation Transcription RNA polymerase DNA Nuclear membrane 1

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-27, steps 1–2 Protein: Transcription and Translation Transcription mRNA processing RNA polymerase DNA Nuclear membrane 1 2

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-27, steps 1–3 Protein: Transcription and Translation Transcription mRNA processing Attachment of ribosomal subunits RNA polymerase DNA Nuclear membrane 1 2 3

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-27, steps 1–4 Protein: Transcription and Translation Asp PheTrp A G A A C C C A G C U U U U U U U U A A A A G G Lys Translation Ribosome Outgoing “empty” tRNA tRNA Nuclear membrane Amino acid Each tRNA molecule attaches at one end to a specific amino acid. The anticodon of the tRNA molecule pairs with the appropriate codon on the mRNA, allowing amino acids to be linked in the order specified by the mRNA code. Growing peptide chain Incoming tRNA bound to an amino acid Anticodon mRNA 4 Transcription mRNA processing Attachment of ribosomal subunits RNA polymerase DNA 1 2 3

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-27, steps 1–5 Protein: Transcription and Translation Asp PheTrp A G A A C C C A G C U U U U U U U U A A A A G G Lys Transcription mRNA processing Attachment of ribosomal subunits Translation Termination Ribosome Outgoing “empty” tRNA RNA polymerase tRNA DNA Nuclear membrane mRNA Amino acid Ribosomal subunits Completed peptide Each tRNA molecule attaches at one end to a specific amino acid. The anticodon of the tRNA molecule pairs with the appropriate codon on the mRNA, allowing amino acids to be linked in the order specified by the mRNA code. Growing peptide chain Incoming tRNA bound to an amino acid Anticodon mRNA

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protein: Post-Translational Modification  Protein folding  Creates tertiary structure  Cross-linkage  Strong covalent bonds  disulfide  Cleavage  Addition of other molecules or groups  Assembly into polymeric proteins

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4-28 Protein: Post-Translational Modification and the Secretory Pathway

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Summary  Energy  Chemical  Transport  Mechanical work  Kinetic energy  Potential energy

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Summary  Chemical reactions  Reactants  Products  Reaction rate  Free energy and activation energy  Exergonic versus endergonic reactions  Reversible versus irreversible reactions

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Summary  Enzymes  Definition  Characteristics  Law of mass action  Type of reactions

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Summary  Metabolism  Catabolic versus anabolic reactions  Control of metabolic pathways  Aerobic versus anaerobic pathways

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Summary  ATP production  Glycolysis  Pyruvate metabolism  Citric acid cycle  Electron transport chain  Glycogen, protein, and lipid metabolism

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Summary  Synthetic pathways  Gluconeogenesis  Lipid synthesis  Protein synthesis  Transcription  Translation  Post-translational modification